1. This and the other connected petitions relating to the Guruvayur temple and the Chidambaram temple were heard together as they all raised the question of the validity of the Madras Hindu Religious endowments Act, 1926, Act II of 1927 (hereinafter called the "earlier Act" ). While these petitions were pending, the Madras Hindu Religious and Charitable endowments Act, 1951 (Act XIX of 1951) (hereinafter called the new Act) which repealed the earlier Act was brought into force by the Madras Government on 30th September 1951 by a notification in the Fort St. George Gazette- Leave to amend the petitions was granted to the petitioners and they have been permitted to canvass the validity of the new Act as well. Mr. M. K. Nambiyar who appeared for the trustee of the Guruvayur temple argued his petition first and Mr. Alladi Krishnaswami Aiyar and the learned Advocate-General replied to that petition after which the petition relating to Guruvayur temple was allowed to be withdrawn as the Government agreed to cancel the decision to notify the temple and to permit the trustee to function. The arguments addressed by Mr. Nambiyar were adopted by the petitioners in the remaining petitions and they further supplemented the arguments addressed by Mr. Nambiyar.

2. It will be convenient to deal with C. M. P. No. 2591 first as it relates to a mutt and covers a wider field than the petition relating to the Chidambaram temple. Some of the arguments are common to both the petitions, particularly the scope of the articles of the Constitution relied on in support of the petitions as having been infringed by the earlier and the later Acts and also the effect of the two Acts on the rights of the petitioners.

3. C. M. P. No. 2591 of 1951 was filed by the Matathipathi of Shirur Mutt in the south Kanara District, praying that this Court should issue a writ of prohibition prohibiting the respondent, viz. , the Hindu Religious Endowments Board, madras by its President from proceeding with O. A. No. 471 of 1950 to frame a scheme for the administration of the mutt. Under Section 103 of the new Act, the notifications and orders issued under the earlier Act are treated as notifications or orders made, issued and passed by the appropriate authority under the corresponding provisions of the new Act and as the place of the president, the Hindu Religious Endowments Board, Madras, was taken by the commissioner appointed under the new Act, the Commissioner, Hindu Religious endowments Board, Madras was added as a party in place of the Board by C. M. P. No. 11917 of 1951 with the leave of Court. The relief, therefore, claimed against the Board is treated as a relief against the newly appointed commissioner of the Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments, Madras.

4. Acting under Section 62 of the earlier Act, the Board issued the notification dated 6th November 1950 stating that as the Board was satisfied that the endowments of the Mutt were mismanaged and that in the opinion of the Board a scheme for the administration of the Mutt and its endowments should be settled, 8th December 1950 was fixed for further enquiry into the matter and the notice also called upon the trustees and other persons interested in the said mutt to appear and show cause why a scheme of administration should not be settled. The reasons alleged were:

"1. That the trustees of the Mutt had been borrowing moneys without necessity and spending them without taking the sanction of the Board on major constructions for which there are no approved estimates or plans. He has thus involved the institution into further debts and has utterly disregarded the directions issued to him in Memo No. 75887/46 Adt, dated 13-3-19

47. 2. Properties belonging to the Mutt have been leased out on low rents and against the interests of the institution. 3. The trustees of the Mutt have, in many cases, acquiesced in the alienation of Mulgeni transfers containing forfeiture clauses against further alienations; owing to their neglect, properties comprised in patta No. 2437 in Uppur have been alienated. 4. The Manager has not been allowed to carry on his duties and the power of attorney granted to him has been cancelled without reference to the Board. "

On the 24th January 1951 the Board issued a notice under Section 63 (1) of the earlier Act to the head of the Mutt intimating that in the interests of the proper administration of the Mutt, and its endowments, a scheme of administration should be settled and that further enquiry would be held on 15-2-1951 at 2 p. m. at the office of the Board in Madras, and asking the trustee and other persons having any interest in the said Mutt to make any representations in writing which they might wish to make in the said matter. To this notice a draft scheme was also attached. As the Board had decided to frame a scheme, the petitioner filed two applications on 12-2-1951, the present C. M. P. No. 2591 of 1951 and another C. M. P. No. 2592 of 1951 and obtained stay of further proceedings, and this Court issued a rule nisi in C. M. P. No. 2591 of 1951. C. M. P. No. 2592 of 1951 was filed for the issue of writ of certiorari to call for the records and quash the order of the Board dated 24th January 1951 deciding to frame a scheme. This application was dismissed as there was no order of the board but there was only a notice and the petitioner was unable to produce a copy of the annexure in which the Board gave its reasons for the decision which they had reached. The petitioner was given an opportunity by this Court to get a copy of the order but the Board somewhat surprisingly seems to have refused to give a copy of the order on the ground that it was confidential. In support of this view of the Board, however, no rule or notification treating the annexure as confidential was referred to us. The petition was ultimately dismissed as withdrawn on 26-2-1951. The object of the present petition, therefore, is to prohibit the Commissioner of Hindu Religious and Charitable Endowments, madras, from taking further steps in the matter of settling a scheme for the administration of the Mutt and its endowments.

5. The petitioners Mutt is known as the Shirur Mutt and is situated in Udipi, a small municipal town in the South Kanara District. The town is celebrated for its sanctity as there exists Sri Krishna Mutt with which is associated the name of sri Madhwacharya, the well known propounder of Pluralistic Theism of the hindu religion. Sanctity is attached to the idol of Sri Krishna which was made of saligramam stone as it is reputed to have been made by Arjuna and worshipped by Sri Rukmini Devi at Dwaraka. The image was reputed to have been miraculously obtained by Swamiji from a vessel wrecked on the coast of tuluva. It was carried by him and later after removing the gobichandana which was wrapped round it, it was installed at Udipi in the 12th century A. D. There are also three Saligrams in the Sri Krishna temple which it is claimed, were presented to Sri Madhavacharya by Vyasa when he took his commentary on Sri bhagwat Gita for the approval of Vyasa at Badrinath. Besides the Sri Krishna mutt the Swamiji also established eight mutts at Udipi each presided over by a sanyasi or Swam. There is no matathipathi for the Sri Krishna Mutt but the swami of each of the eight mutts in turn presides over the temple of Sri Krishna for a period of two years in every 16 years. At/every change of a Swami at the end of two years, a festival known as Paryayam is celebrated on a very grand scale. These eight mutts are Palimar, Admar, Krishnapur, Puttige, Shirur, Sode, kaniyur and Pejavar. The Mutts are linked together into four groups of two each as Dvandva mutts as the two mutts linked together should co-operate in all matters. The South Kanara Manual, Vol. I, page 148 refers to the fact that the periodical change of the Swami presiding over the temple of Sri Krishna is the occasion of a great festival known as Paryayam when Udipi is filled to overflowing by a large concourse of devotees not only from the District but from distant parts especially Mysore State. The Paryaya Swami is under an obligation to feed the pilgrims at this festival and he has to meet the expenses of feeding from the income of the temple of Sri Krishna, from the income of his Mutt and from contributions. The rest of the expenditure is met either from the accumulations of the income already made or by borrowing funds. It seems to be almost a usage that every Paryayaswami has necessarily to borrow large amounts to meet the expenditure of the Paryaya as he would always be unable to meet it from the income. This information can be gathered from the South Kanara manual, Vol. I, pages 147 and 148 and from the decision of the Judicial committee in vibhu-DAPRIVA v. LAKSHMINDRA, 50 Mad 497 PC, on appeal from lakshmindra v. VIBHUPAPRIYA, 44 Mad LJ 187. The present Swami is the 29th disciple in the line of succession starting from the first Head who was a direct disciple of Sri Madhavacharya. Shivalli Brahmins who are the followers of Sri Madhavacharya claim this as their exclusive Mutt. These Brahmins are Tulu speaking Brahmins of the Smartha sect and are followers of Dwaita philosophy founded by Sri Madvacharya. The headquarters of these Brahmins is at Shivalli a few miles away from Udipi though some of them had migrated to other places in and outside the State. Sri Madhavacharya was born at Udipi but ho also resided for sometime at Shivalli where he composed his 37 spiritual works --see the Manual at page 148 and also thurston on Castes and Tribes, Vol. 1 page 378 where he describes the Shivalli brahmins.

6. The petitioner was installed as Mathadhipathi in the year 1919 during his minority and he assumed management only in 1926 when he attained majority. At that time, the Mutt was heavily indebted, the then income of the Mutt being only Rs. 18,000/- per year as estimated by the petitioner. During 1926-30, the indebtedness was reduced by the efforts of the Swami and also fresh acquisitions of property were made. 1931, however, was again a troublesome year. It was a period of his paryayam and he had to meet heavy expenditure of feeding the Brahmins on that occasion, which swelled the debt to about Rs. 85. 000. This was followed by a period, 1932 to 1946, when by his efforts there was again a reduction in the debt. Then came the second paryayam at a time when the necessary commodities were controlled by the State and the price of food stuffs were very high. The Swamiji naturally was obliged to run into further debts. At this juncture, the Board in exercise of the powers vested in it under Section 61 (a) of the earlier Act, required the Swami to appoint a competent person as manager and to report the name of the person so appointed to the Board. Ultimately, one Sri pathachar was appointed as agent Under a power of attorney dated 24th December, 19

48. The petitioners complaint is that this action of the Board was instigated and goaded by one Mr. A. Lakshminarayana rao, an advocate of Udipi who was anxious to obtain a controlling hand in the affairs of the Mutts. The agent, it is alleged, had his own way, of management of the affairs of the Mutt without reference to the Swami and he even failed to submit the accounts_ to the Swam. Paragraph 11 of the affidavit gives particulars of the various charges of the Swamiji against his agent. Finally the swami by registered notice dated 26th August 1950 terminated the management of the said agent and cancelled his power of attorney. He called upon the agent to submit the accounts and also to return the other documents in his possession and custody. On the 28th September, 1950 the agent sent a reply through his advocate Mr. A. Lakshminarayana Rao stating that the cancellation of the power of attorney was illegal as according to its terms, it could not be cancelled and he declined to hand over to the Swamiji the accounts and other documents. This was followed by a suit instituted by the swami on 4-10-1950 O. S. No. 280 of 1950 in the Sub-Court, South Kanara for recovering possession of the accounts, documents and other movables. It would appear however that a day prior to the institution of the suit on the 3rd october 1950, the agent perhaps anticipating the contemplated suit by the swami, filed a petition before the Board under Section 18 of the earlier Act bringing to the notice of the Board the wrongful termination of his appointment and demanding a reply. On the succeeding day, 4th October 1950, the Board immediately issued a notice to the Swami proposing to enquire into the matter on the 24th October 1950 at 2 p. m. at Madras and requesting the Swami to appear either in person or by pleader. To this notice, the Swami filed a reply on 21st October 1950 inviting the attention of the Board to the fact of the institution of the suit which raised the same questions as before them and enclosing a copy of the plaint for the perusal of the Board. He complained also that on account of the absence of the accounts and the papers which were wrongfully withheld by the agent, he was not in a position to sufficiently answer the charges levelled against him by the agent in the petition. Without proceeding with that enquiry and without even waiting for the result of the suit, the Board suo motu initiated proceedings under Section 62 of the earlier Act on the 6th November, 1950 for framing a scheme and for that end issued a notice to the petitioner to show cause why a scheme should not be framed setting out in the notice the reasons in support of the proposed action which were stated earlier in this judgment.

7. The notice was served by affixture on the Swami and the enquiry into the matter of framing a scheme was posted by the Board at Madras on the 8th december 1950, on which date at the request of the counsel for the Swami it was adjurned to 21st December, 1950. On the 18th December, 1950 an application was filed on behalf of the Swami with a request to the Board to issue a direction to the agent to hand over the accounts and other documents in order to enable the Swami to file his objections. As the counsel for the Swami mr. K. R. Karanth was ill, the matter was again adjourned to 10th January, 1951. The Swamiji was not ready with his objections even on the 10th as his advocate was still ill and a telegram was sent on the 9th requesting the Board to adjourn the matter further. This request was not granted and as no explanation was filed by the Swami, the enquiry was closed and orders reserved on the 10th. Mr. Srinivasan an advocate of Madras filed on behalf of the Swami on 11th january 1951 a memo requesting the Board to re-open the matter which was declined. Thereafter, the Swami sent on the 13th January 1951 his written explanation to the Board which was admittedly received by the Board on the 15th. The notes paper shows that an order was passed directing the framing of a scheme by the Board which does not however bear any date. From the subsequent notice issued bearing date 24th January 1951, it may be assumed that the order was passed on that date. The notice issued thereafter to the swamiji required him to state his objections for the proposed action of the board. The order of the Board which was given as an annexure was attacked by the petitioner in these proceedings on the merits and also on the ground that it contravened and infringed and abridged the fundamental rights regarding religious liberty of individuals and denominations guaranateed by the constitution. It was claimed that the Mutt belongs only to the Madhwa section of the Hindu community and particularly of Shivalli Brahmins.

8. A counter affidavit was filed on behalf of the Board by its secretary traversing the material allegations and justifying the action of the Board on legal grounds and also on" merits. A preliminary objection was also raised that the application was premature as the final orders settling the scheme were not passed and that in any event the petitioner had a remedy by way of suit after the scheme was framed and so this application should not be entertained.

9. The Articles of the Constitution relied on by the petitioner as having been contravened by the impugned legislation are Articles 14, 15, 19 (1) (f), 25, 26, 27 and 30. In the course of the arguments, the extreme contention that the Mutt was not a public mutt was for the first time raised. On the merits the order was attacked on the grounds:

1. that the Board acted with bias and this was founded on some allegations made in the affidavit supported by other affidavits against the President of the Board and one of the Commissioners who it was alleged were hand in glove with Mr. A. Lakshminarayana Rao and Mr. Sripathachar when they visited Udipi on occasions;

2. that no mismanagement was established and indeed could not be established as the Swami was not in management for over 2 years but the management was exclusively with the agent;

3. that the grounds were vague and indefinite and that no reasonable opportunity was given to the petitioner to show cause;

4. that the. order was perverse as it was solely based on the fact of removal of the manager Sripathachar without any enquiry into the charges levied against him by the Swamiji and even without waiting till the disposal of the suit in which the charges were bound to be considered;

5. that the order was perverse on various other grounds. To these questions may be added the preliminary objection raised on behalf of the respondent that as there was another remedy open to the petitioner after the scheme was framed by way of suit, this Court should not interfere by issuing a writ of prohibition and that the application was also premature.

10. It is not possible to determine whether any of the rights of the mathadhipathi had been infringed, abridged or taken away without first ascertaining what those rights are. The material throwing light on the origin and the history and the functions of these Mutts in the Hindu polity is very meagre. The juristic relationship of the Mathadhipathi to the properties of the Mutt and its income has nowhere been precisely defined as the rights and duties of the mathadhipathi and the succession to the headship is governed solely by usage and not by any code of legal principles. These rights, therefore, have to be deduced to a large extent from the judicial decisions by no means altogether reconcilable and the opinions of text writers.

11. "mutt" used as a transitive verb means literally "to dwell" or to inhabit. mata noun means hut, a small building inhabited by an ascetic or devotee, a monastery, a college.

"in its original and narrow sense, then, the term Mutt signified the residence of an ascetic or Sanniyasi or Parades. "

See gjyana SAMBANDA PANDARA v. KANDASAMI, 10 Mad 375 at p. 386. From very ancient times, the Sanniyasis had no fixed abode but were wandering from place to place receiving such lodgings and food as were provided by devotees. Even now to a large extent the same practice obtains except in cases where such sanniyasis are attached to a Mutt. When Buddhism was in its ascendancy in India and when Budhistic monks became popular, Sri jagadguru Adisankaracharya gave a new orientation and infused fresh blood into Hinduism and stemmed the tide of the rapid spread of Buddhism in India. He established the Adwaita or Vedantic system of philosophy with which his name is always associated. He was the first, so far as tradition goes, to establish Mutts for the propagation of his philosophy and the reclamation of hinduism. Tradition has it that after conquering the rival faiths he established adwaita system of philosophy and founded four "mutts or seats of learning in the four corners of this vast sub-continent --Sringeri (Sharada Peeta) in Mysore in the South, with which, it is familiar knowledge the name of that great and erudite scholar and philosopher Vidyaranyaswami is associated Badrinath in the himalayas in the North Jagannath or modern Puri in the East and Dwarka in the bombay Presidency in the West In each of these Mutts as their heads, he installed his principal disciples and he himself assumed the headship of sarvagna Peeta or the central seat of knowledge at Kanchi, the modern conjeevaram. This central peetam was first shifted to Tanjore and then to kumba-konam from where it continues to function even the present day. Following the lead of Sankara, the founded of Visishtadwaita, and others also foundec Mutts with similar objects and for similar purposes. Nannuneri in the tinnevelly District also known as Vanamamalai mutt and the Ahobila Mutt were founded, so goes the tradition by the disciples of Sri Ramanujacharya. As adverted to already, the dwaita mutts at Udipi were founded by Sri madvacharya. Ahobila Mutt was established for the spiritual instruction and benefit of the Vaishnava Brahmins of the Vadagalai sect. rangachariar v. YEGNA DIKSHITUR, 13 Mad 524, relates to this Mutt. Besides these, there are saiva mutts of the Sudras and the Vira Saiva Mutts of the Lingayats. Of the sudra mutts perhaps the Dharmapuram mutt is the largest.

12. "the origin of these associations", to quote Muttusami Ayyar J. in guyana sammandha PANDARA v. KANDASAMI, 10 Mad 375 at p. 386,

"their constitution and development form part of the history of the establishment and spread of the Brahminical systems of religious doctrine among the Sudra communities in Southern India (referring to the Sudra Mutts ). Originally the ascetic who renounced the world and devoted himself to religion, confined his attention to the study of theology, to imparting religious instruction to his disciples, and to complying with the ordinances prescribed for the guidance of his order. "

In the well known case of vidyapurna THTRTHASWAMI v. VIDHYANIDHI tirtha SWAMI, 27 Mad 435 [LQ/MadHC/1904/3] . Subramania Ayyar O. C. J, referring to these mutis described the object with which they were established as follows:"now there can be no doubt that institutions of the class under consideration were established as centres of theological learning and in order to provide a line of competent teachers with reference to the established Hindu creeds of the country. If any proof of this statement were necessary, that is furnished by the unquestionable connection which exists between some of the more important of this class of institutions and the leading exponents of the tenets of those creeds. As pointed out in Mr. Ghoses Hindu Law, page 680, no less than seven mutts, being among the most celebrated, owe their origin to the great Adwaita Philosopher Sankaracharya. Other mutts not less numerous or important following the tenets of the Visishtawaita system of Ramanujacharya are traceable to that teacher. The wellknown eight muttis at Udipi, the centre of the Dwaita system of thought, are on all hands admitted to have been founded by madhwacharya, the chief expounder of that system. The Sudra mutts of this Presidency, of which those at Dharmapuram and tiruvaduthorai are the chief, represent what is known as the Saiva sidhantam. " (The reference to Seven mutts of Sankaracharya seems to be a mistake for five ). The learned Judge refers to the influence exercised by mutts as centres of learning in the next paragraph in the same page thus: "the influence exercised by mutts as centres of learning on the religious and other literature of the country cannot be denied. The varied and well-known contributions made thereto by the famous vidyaranya Swami of the Sringeri or Sarada Mutt, or under his auspices, are among the most conspicuous examples of this kind. There is scarcely a branch of learning considered by Hindus as important, to which Vidyaranya or the scholars whom he gathered round him, did not make valuable contributions, and it is to his commentaries that the modern world owes its knowledge of the traditional meaning of the oldest of sacred books--the Rig Veda. Nor has the influence of the Mutts at Dharmapuram, Tiruvaduthurai, etc. on the Dravidian literature been inconsiderable. "

To similar effect are the observations of Bashyam Ayyangar J. in his judgment in the same case. Referring to the mutts of Southern India, ameer All J. says in vidya VARUTHI THIRTHA v. BALUSWAMI ayyar, 44 Mad 831 at p. 840:"in many cases in Southern India, especially where the diffusion of Aryan Brahmanism was essential for bringing the Dravidian people under the religious rule of the Hindu system, colleges and monasteries under the names of mutt were founded under spiritual teachers of recognised sanctity. "



13. It is thus evident that the mutts are centres of theological learning especially for the study, practice and propagation of the cult of each system of philosophy and to train and equip a line of competent teachers whose duty is to go forth into the land bearing the torch of learning and spreading its light. They must have functioned and indeed in future must continue to function to fulfil the objects with which they were founded with foresight by the great teachers of the religion. If they had survived the onslaughts of other religions through centuries, it can only be due to their intrinsic merits and not to adventitious circumstances. It is the learning and piety of the head of the Mutt, the superior, which attracted disciples and induced even laymen to make munificent gifts of land and other properties placing them at the disposal of the Swami for the time being. It is common knowledge that gifts are offered as padakanikas at the feet of the swam. There are also permanent endowments of lands and villages made in ancient days by kings and Rajas without indicating the particular object for which such properties were endowed. It would perhaps be considered impudence on the part of the donor to impose any conditions or restrictions regarding the use of the income from the properties gifted to a personage whom he held in high religious esteem. The piety of the head to whom the gifts were made was a sufficient guarantee that the corpus and the income would not be frittered away for mundane purposes. These mutts, in short, are something like colleges established and founded for the study and teaching and for propagating the cult of the religion peculiar to the mutt.



14. So much about the functions of these mutts in Hindu religion. The more difficult question for solution is the juristic relationship of the superior or the head of the Mutt to the property. The difficulty is enhanced when attempt is made to it facts to notions borrowed from the English jurisprudence. Viewed from the juristic conception of a trust, it is difficult to infer that the Matathipahi is invariably a trustee of the properties. The properties might have been acquired under different circumstances for various purposes and unless the deed of endowment is forthcoming, it may not be possible to easily infer a trust. The succession, according to the invariable usage of these mutts, always devolves upon the disciple selected and nominated by the outgoing head or matathipath. It is not governed by the ordinary Hindu law relating to the properties belonging to a sanyasi as laid down by Mitakshara. The question was considered in a number of decisions of this Court and also by the Judicial committee. These decisions may be examined to arrive at a conclusion on the question, as to the jural relationship of the Matathipathi to the properties and whether he is a trustee in the sense in which that term is understood in the trust Act. As Salmond points out in his book on Jurisprudence, 9th Edn. , at p. 349:

"a trust is a very important and curious instance of duplicate ownership. Trust property is that which is owned by two persons at the same time, the relation between the two owners being such that one of them is under an obligation to use his ownership for the benefit of the other. The former is called the trustee, and his ownership is trust ownership; the latter is called the beneficiary, and his is beneficial ownership. . . . . . The trustee is destitute of any right of beneficial enjoyment of the trust property. His ownership, therefore, is a matter of form rather than of sub-stance, and nominal rather than real. If we have regard to the essence of the matter rather than to the form of it, a trustee is not an owner at all, but a mere agent, upon whom the law has conferred the power and imposed the duty of administering the property of another person. In legal theory, however, he is not a mere agent but an owner. He is a person to whom the property of some one else is fictitiously attributed by the law, to the extent that the rights and powers thus vested in a nominal owner shall be used by him on behalf of the real owner. As between trustee and beneficiary, the law recognizes the truth of the matter; as between these two, the property belongs to the latter and not to the former. But as between the trustee and third persons, the fiction prevails. The trustee is clothed with the rights of his beneficiary, and is so enabled to personate or represent him in dealings with the world at large. "

Though it is elementary knowledge, it is always useful to bear in mind the elements that go to constitute a trust. In sammantha PANDARA v. SELLAPPA chettt, 2 Mad 175 [LQ/MadHC/1942/231] , Muthusamj Ayyar, J. considered that"the property of the mattam does not descend to the disciples or elders in common; the preceptor the head of the institution, selects among the affiliated disciples him whom he deems the most competent, and in his own lifetime installs the disciple so selected as his successor, not uncommonly with some ceremonies. After the death of the preceptor the disciple so chosen is installed in the gaddi, and takes by succession the property which has been held by his predecessor. The property is in fact attached to the office and passes by inheritance to no one who does" not fill the office. it is in a certain sense trust property; it is devoted to the maintenance of the establishment but the superior has large dominion over it, and is not accountable for its management nor for the expenditure of the income, provided he does not apply it to any purpose other than what may fairly be regarded as in furtherance of the objects of the institution. " (The underlining (here in single quotation) is mine ). In the next case giyana SAMMANDHA PANDARA v. KANDASAMI, 10 Mad 375, the learned Judge observed: "thus, the ascetic who originally owned little or no property, came to own the Matam under his charge and its endowment, in trust for the maintenance of the Mutt, for his own support, for that of his disciples, and for the performance of religious and other charities in connection with it, according to usage. "

According to his view therefore the property is held in trust the objects of the trust being the maintenance of the mutt, the support of the Head and his disciples and the performance of religious and other charities in connection with the Mutt. The learned Judge, however, added that the Matathipathi had a larger dominion over the property and was not even accountable for its management nor for the expenditure of the income, the only limitation being that he should not apply the income or the property for any purpose other than what may fairly be regarded as in furtherance of the objects of the institution. It will be seen from this conception of the ownership that it is not strictly permissible to apply the notion of a trust to the fullest extent. In vidyapurna TIRTHA SWAMI v. VI-DYANIDHI TIRTHA SWAMI, 27 Mad 435 [LQ/MadHC/1904/3] , the question received a critical examination by the two learned Judges, subramania Ayyar and Bashyam Ayyangar JJ. According to their view the inalienability of the properties belonging to the Mutt flows from the fact that the property was given for the maintenance of charities, religious or otherwise, connected with the Mutt. The Swamiji of the Mutts were not mere employees or subordinates in the institution but heads thereof. Their duty was to promote learning and further the interests of the religion and they being ascetics are not prone to be affected by motives incidental to worldly life, requiring less restraint in dealing with property than ordinary men. On this reasoning the learned judge concludes:"it followed therefore that the law gave them over what remained of the income after defraying the established charges of the institutions, a full power of disposition, while in respect of the corpus it treated the individuals composing the line of succession as in the position of tenants for life. "

He differs from some of the observations made by Muthuswami Ayyar J. in samman-DHA PANDARA v. SELLAPPA CHETTI, 2 Mad 175 [LQ/MadHC/1942/231] . The precise dual character of the heads of the institutions like the Mutts was compared to that of the temples by the learned Judge. In the case of temples undoubtedly the idol is the ideal person and juristic entity in whom the property is vested and the dharma-kartha or the manager for the time being had no sort of benficial interest in the property which is entrusted to his care and management but he being undoubtedly in a fiduciary position his liability is strictly that of a trustee though he is not a trustee himself and he is not a trustee because the property does not vest in him. How does the position stand regarding the Mutts The learned Judge deals with this question at page 442 and adverts to the fact that invariably in the Mutts there are idols connected with the worship, which is a secondary matter "the principal purpose" to quote the learned Judge,"of such an institution being the maintenance in circumstances likely to command due respect and estimation of a line of competent religious teachers, who, as already shown, are given for the welfare of the foundation itself, a real and so to speak, beneficial interest in the usufruct, the restrictions governing the disposition whereof by them being of the nature of a mere moral obligation. "

The learned Judge goes on to observe:"having regard to these facts it is obvious that the correct view to be taken is that in the case of mutts the ideal person is the office of the spiritual teacher Acharya which, as it were, is incarnate in the person of each successive Swami who, for the time, is a real owner and not a mere trustee. "



15. In the same case, Bashyam Ayyangar J. expressed the definite opinion that the head of a Mutt as such is not a trustee in the sense in which that term is generally understood in the law of Trusts and that the principles regulating the appointment of new trustees are by analogy derived therefrom should not be invoked in determining the legal position of a Matathipathi with reference to his properties. He contrasts the position of a dharmakartha of a temple and the position of the head of a Mutt. At page 451 he pointed out that in the case of debutter property such as property belonging to deyasthanams or temples which have been established for the spiritual benefit of the Hindu community in general or for that of particular sects or sections thereof, the management of such institutions is usually vested in one or more persons variously described as dharmakarthas, panchayats, uralans etc. but referred to in the Acts as trustees, managers or superintendents. He says:

"their office is either hereditary or for life and as a general rule, they have beneficial interest in the endowments or their income. As already stated, the worshippers are beneficiaries only jn a spiritual sense, and the endowments themselves are primarily intended for spiritual purposes, though indirectly and incidentally a good number of people derive material or pecuniary benefit therefrom as office holders, servants or objects of charity. In the decisions above referred to at length, the presiding idol is treated as a juristic person in whom the properties constituting the endowments are vested. The question has not been suggested or considered, whether the community itself for whose spiritual benefit the institution was founded and endowed may not more appropriately be regarded as a corporate body forming the juristic person in whom the properties of the institution are vested and who act through one or more of the natural persons forming the corporate body, --these latter being the dharmakarthas or panchayats etc. , charged with the execution of the trusts of the institution and possessing strictly limited powers of alienation of the endowments, as defined in the cases cited above. Though a fluctuating and uncertain body of men cannot claim a profit a prendre in alieno solo, nor be the grantee of any kind of real property (see goodman v. MAYOR OF saltash, (1882) 7 AC C33, yet there is high authority for treating such a community as a corporation of juristic person in relation to religious foundations and endowments. "

With reference to the heads of the Mutts he observes at p. 454:"the position of the head of the mutt is thus not the same as or analogous to that of managers or dharmakarthas of devasthanams and temples, but resembles more that of Bishops and Archbishops in the christian system of Europe. In the case of temples, the endowments, whether in the shape of landed property or tasdik allowances, have to be devoted to the carrying out of the specific purposes connected with the temple,. e. , the daily worship and the periodical ceremonies and festival -- purposes defined and settled by usage, and custom and generally recorded in what is known as the dittani -- and the dharmakarthas are mere trustees for the carrying out, or executing of such trusts. In the case of mutts, however, such defined and specific purposes immediately connected with the maintenance of the mutt as an institution, are, in the nature of things, very limited and a large part of the income derived from the endowments of the mutt as well as from the money offerings of its disciples and followers -- which offerings as a rule are very considerable --is at the disposal of the head of the mutt for the time being, which he is expected to spend, at his will and pleasure, on objects of religious charity and in the encouragement and promotion of religious learning. His obligation to devote the surplus income to such religious and charitable objects is one in the nature only of an imperfect or moral obligation resting in his conscience and regulated only by the force of public opinion and he is in no way, whether as a trustee or otherwise, accountable for it in law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . In legal contemplation, therefore, the head of a mutt as such, has an estate for life in its permanent endowments and an absolute property in the income derived from the offerings of his followers, subject only to the burden of maintaining the institution. Over the corpus of the endowment, however, his power of disposition is very limited, as in the case of managers of temples and devasthanams. He cannot alienate or charge the corpus or the income beyond his own lifetime, so as to bind the mutt and his successors except for the purposes plainly necessary for the maintenance of the mutt. "



16. The conclusion of both the learned Judges therefore was that as regards mutt properties,.. , the corpus the matathipathi has a life estate but over the income derived from various sources he has full power of disposition Limited only to the objects of the institution. The corpus can be alienated only for purposes binding on the institution. e. , for necessity or benefit as in the case of dharmakarthas, managers of temples etc.

17. There are three decisions which arose out of the same litigation and relate to the Tiruvannamalai Mutt. Two suits O. S. Nos. 1 and 2 of 1905 were instituted fn the District Court, Madura with the consent of the Advocate General under section 539, Civil P. C. corresponding to the present Section

92. The object of the suits was to have it declared that there was no lawful trustee for the Mutt. The object of filing the two suits was some doubt was felt, whether the head of the Mutt was a trustee within the meaning of Section 92, C. P. C. Therefore in one of the suit a mere declaration was sought. In both the suits there was a common issue whether the first defendant, the de facto holder of the office was a mere trustee of the mutt or had a life estate in the Adhinam properties. Both the suits were dismissed by the District Judge on the authority of VIDYAPURNA tirthaswami v. VIDYANIDHI TIRTHA SWAMI 27 Mad 435 [LQ/MadHC/1904/3] , holding that the pandarasannadh. e. , the head of the mutt was not a mere trustee and that therefore no suit lay under Section 539 of the Code. There were appeals to the High Court which came up in the first instance before munro and Abdur Rahim JJ. who referred the question: "does the head of a mutt hold the properties constituting its endowment as a life tenant or as a trustee" to a Full Bench as the learned Judges doubted the correctness of the decision in vidyapurna TIRTHASWAMI V. VIDYANIDHI TIRTHASWAMI, 27 mad 435 [LQ/MadHC/1904/3] , in view of the earlier decisions in samantha PAN-DARA v. SELLAPPA chetti, 2 Mad 175 [LQ/MadHC/1942/231] and GIYANA SAMANDA PANDARA v. KAN-DASAMI, 10 Mad 375. The matter came up in kailasam PILLAI v. NATARAJA THAM-BIRAN, 33 mad 265 [LQ/MadHC/1909/292] , before a Full Bench consisting of Sir Ralph Sillery Benson O. C. J. Wallis and Sankaran Nair JJ. The question was fully examined by the learned judges and the answer given by them was that it could not be predicated of the head of a mutt, as such, that he holds the mutt properties constituting its endowments either as a life tenant or as a trustee. The incidents attaching to the properties depend in each case upon the conditions on which they were given, or which may be inferred from the long continued and well established usage and custom of the institution in respect thereto. The right of the head over the surplus income and his power to utilise it for the spiritual advancement of himself and his disciples or for the public was recognised. Sankaran Nair J. observed at page 286:

"his discretion in this matter is unfettered. He is not accountable to any one and he is not bound to utilize the surplus. He may leave it to accumulate. From the nature of the case he cannot be controlled by the Courts. In such cases there is no trust. Where the trust is clear the Courts will of course enforce it. But the embarrassment and difficulty that would be caused may be taken into consideration in deciding where there is a trust. Though the other members may not be entitled to demand that the surplus funds should be applied to any particular purpose, it may be that they have the power to check any expenditure for purposes entirely repugnant to the character of the institution, if it would dimmish the fund out of which they have to be maintained and educated and the necessary expenses, payment of government revenue etc. , have to be incurred. "

Of course, the learned Judges also recognised that lands held by the mutt could not be alienated except for necessary and binding purposes and that is for the reason not that it is trust "property but that the mutt is a permanent institution the head of which for the time being is bound to pass it on to his successor without burdening it except for necessaries. The matathipathi undoubtedly is under a legal obligation to maintain the mutt, to support the disciples and to perform the indispensable services from and out of the income in his hands. In view of the answer given by the Full Bench, when the case went back 1o the division Bench, the decision of the learned District Judge was reversed and the suits were remanded for ascertaining whether there was any specific evidence to establish that with reference to any particular property, there was a trust created in the manner recognised by law. After remand, the matter was considered by the subordinate Judge to whom it was transferred and he recorded a finding that there was no evidence to show that the pandarasannadhi was a trustee and he again dismissed the suits. The matter came up again to the High Court and the decision is reported as kailasam PILLAI v. NATARAJA TAMBIRAN 32 Mad L J 271. By this time, the privy Council judgment in ram PRA-KASH DAS v. ANAND DAS, 43 Cal 707 (P c), was pronounced in which there were observations to the effect that the position of a mahant was that of a trustee. Attempt was made therefore to reopen the decision of the Pull Bench and to canvass its correctness. But this attempt failed as the Division Bench refused to re-open the question rightly pointing out that the remedy of the aggrieved parties was by way of an appeal against the previous judgment to the Judicial Committee. The correctness of the finding of fact that there was no evidence of a trust, however, was not canvassed before the Division Bench. The Division Bench considered the other questions arising in the appeal regarding the validity of the appointment of the person in possession which is not material for this discussion. This decision was taken in appeal to the Judicial Committee in nataraja TAMBIRAN v. KAILSAM pillai, 44 Mad 283 (P C), Before the Judicial Committee no attempt seems to have been made to challenge the correctness of the decision in kailasam pillai v. NATARAJA TAMBIRAN, 33 Mad 265 [LQ/MadHC/1909/292] , and the finding that there was no evidence to show that the head of a Mutt was a trustee of the Mutt or its properties was accepted as correct and on that basis the case proceeded, and the only questions which their Lordships of the Privy Council were called upon to consider as necessary for the decision of the case was the question relating to the validity of the appointment of the Pandarasannadh. In the same volume in vidya VARUTHI THIRTHA v. BALUSAMI AYYAR, 44 Mad 831 (PC), there is another decision of the Privy Council relating to a Mutt situate in the Mysore State but which owned property in this presidency. The point that arose for decision no doubt was one of limitation in a suit to recover properties alienated by the previous head of a Mutt and the question debated was whether or not the head of the Mutt was a trustee within the meaning of article 134, Shedule I of the Limitation Act. In considering this point Mr. Ameer ali reviewed the whole question in the light of the law applicable to Hindu and muhammadan endowments and also considered the effect of the earlier decision of the Board in RAM PARKASH DAS v. ANAND DAS, 43 Cal 707 (PC ). This decision is important as a considered pronouncement of the Privy Council on the question now under consideration. The observations of the Judicial committee in greedharee DOSS v. NUNDOKISHORE DOSS, H Moo Ind App 405 (PC), that the"only law as to these Mahants and their functions and duties is to be found in custom and practice, which is to be proved by testimony,"

has again been reiterated at page 838. The word trustee in the decision in ram PARKASH DAS y. ANAND DASS, 43 Cal 707 (PC), it was explained, was intended to be used only in a general sense as a convenient and compendious expression to convey the general obligations. It was not intended by that expression to define the term or to hold that the word in its specific, sense is applicable to the laws and usages in India. The decisions of this Court in vidyapurna TIRTHASWAMI v. VIDYANIDHI TIRTHASWAMI, 27 Mad 435 [LQ/MadHC/1904/3] , and of the Full Bench in kailasam PILLAI v. NATARAJA TAMBIRAN, 33 Mad 265 [LQ/MadHC/1909/292] , were referred to in the course of the judgment without any disapproval, of the view taken by the Full Bench. In the case of temples, "the image or the deity of the Hindu pantheon", observed Mr. Ameer Ali"is, as has been aptly called, a juristic entity, vested with the capacity of receiving gifts and holding property. Religious institutions, known under different names, are regarded as possessing the same juristic capacity and gifts are made to them eo nomine. . . . . . . . . . . . When the gift is directly to an idol or a temple, the seisin to complete the gift is necessarily effected by human agency. Called by whatever name, he is only the manager and custodian of the idol or the institution. In almost every case he is given the right to a part of the usufruct depending again on usage and custom. In no case was the property conveyed to or vested in him, nor is he a trustee in the English sense of the term, although in view of the obligation and duties resting on him, he is answerable as a trustee, in the general sense for maladministration. "

After a review of the decisions including vidyapurna TIRTHASWAMI v. VIDYANIDHI TIRTHASWAMI, 27 Mad 435 [LQ/MadHC/1904/3] and kailasam PILLAI v. NATARAJA tambi-BIRAN, 35 Mad 265, the conclusion is stated at page 847 as follows:"from the above review of the general law relating to Hindu and muhammadan pious institutions it would prima facie follow that an alienation by a manager or superior by whatever name called, cannot be treated as the act of a "trustee" to whom property has been "conveyed in trust" and who by virtue thereof has the capacity Vested in him which is possessed by a "trustee" in the English law. Of course, a Hindu or a Muhammadan may "convey in trust" a specific property to a particular individual for a specific and definite purpose and place himself expressly under the English law when the person to whom the legal ownership is transferred would become a trustee in the specific sense of the term. "

Later on it was added that the expression" conveyed in trust is hardly the right expression to apply to gifts of lands or other property for the general purposes of a Hindu religious or pious institution. " It was therefore held that the head of a mutt was not a trustee within the meaning of Article 134. srinivas chariar T. P. v. C. N. EVALAPPA MUDALIAR, 45 Mad 565 (PC), drew a distinction between the position of a dharmakartha and that of a shebait of a religious institution. At p. 581 it is stated: "the position of a dharmakartha is not that of a shebait of a religious institution, or of the head of a mutt. These functionaries have a much higher right with larger power of disposal and administration, and they have a personal interest of a beneficial character. "

18. In the very learned judgments delivered in vidyapurna TIRTHASWAMI v. VIDYANIDHI THIRTHASWAMI, 27 Mad 435 [LQ/MadHC/1904/3] , the distinction between those functionaries is explained. But a dharmakartha is literally and no more than the manager of a charity, and his rights, apart it may be in certain circumstances from the question of personal support, are never in a higher legal category than that of a mere trustee.

19. To these weighty pronouncements may be added the latest decision of the supreme Court in angurbala v. DEBABRATE, (1951) SCJ 394, where it had to consider the question whether the Hindu Womens Rights to Property Act xviii of 1937 as amended by Act XI of 1938, was applicable to the devolution of shebaitship. The Act would apply if the shebaitship is property. The answer given was that it was property within the meaning of that Act. Mukerjea J. at page 398 summarised the position of a shebait as follows:

"the exact legal position of a shebait may not be capable of precise definition but its implications are fairly well established. It is settled by the pronouncement of the Judicial Committee in vidya VARUTHI v. BALUSWAMI, 44 Mad 831, that the relation of a shebait in regard to debutter property is not that of a trustee to trust property under the English law. In English law the legal estate in the trust property vests in the trustee who holds it for the benefit of cestui que trust. In a Hindu religious endowment on the other hand the entire ownership of the dedicated property is transferred to the deity or the institution itself as a juristic person and the Shebait or Mahant is a mere manager. But though a Shebait is a manager and not a trustee in the technical sense, it would not be correct to describe the shebaitship as mere office. The shebait has not only duties to discharge in connection with the endowment, but he has a beneficial interest in the debutter property. As the Judicial Committee observed in the above case, in almost all such endowments the Shebait has a share in the usufruct of the debutter property which depends upon the terms of the grant or upon custom or usage. Even where no emoluments are attached to the office of the Shebait, he enjoys some sort of right or interest in the endowed property which partially at least has the character of shebaiti both the elements of office and property, of duties and personal interest are mixed up and blended together; and one of the elements cannot be detached from the other. It is the presence of this personal or beneficial interest in the endowed property which invests shebaitship with the character of proprietary rights and attaches to it the legal incidents of property. This was elaborately discussed by a Full Bench of the Calcutta High Court in monohar MUKERJEA v. BHUPENDRA NATH, 60 Cal 452 [LQ/CalHC/1932/210] , and this decision of the Full Bench was approved of by the Judicial Committee in ganesh CHUNDERv. LALBEHARY,71mad LJ 740: 63 Ind App 448 (PC), and again in bhabatarini v. ASHALATA, (1943) 2 Mad LJ 70: (70 Ind App 57 P C ). The effect of the first two decisions, as the Privy council pointed out in the last case, was to emphasize the proprietary element in the shebaiti right and to show that though in some respects anomalous, it was an anomaly to be accepted as having been admitted into Hindu law from an early date. "



20. The view taken in baluswami IYER v. VENKITASWAMI NAICKEN, 32 Mad l J 24, following the decision of the Privy Council in ram PARKASH DAS v. ANAND DAS, 43 Cal 707, does not seem to be correct. It is this decision which went on appeal to the Privy Council in vidya VARUTHI v. BALUSWAMI AYYAR, 44 Mad 831, and was reversed by the Privy Council. It is therefore too late in the day to contend, as was done on behalf of the respondent, that this decision is still good law and it is unnecessary to refer to the other decisions in view of the weighty pronouncements of the Judicial Committee and of the Supreme court.



21. From this review of the authorities, it may be taken as established that the head of the mutt is not a trustee in the sense in which that word is used in the law of Trusts and his position cannot be brought under any legal label known to english jurisprudence. He is not even a life tenant in respect of the properties permanently vested in the mutt or the religious institution. He has a right to the income but he has no power of disposition over the corpus unless necessity or benefit is established. He has large powers over the surplus of the income after meeting the demands of the institution such as its maintenance, the maintenance of the disciples and the performance of the daily worship etc. He has the discretion to use the surplus for spiritual objects and that discretion is unfettered so long as the surplus is not diverted to any immoral or wicked purposes. He has the liberty to accumulate the income. The padakanikas are at his absolute disposal. If, however, it is established that any specific property has been vested as a trustee in the head of the mutt, to that extent and in respect of that property, he becomes a trustee. In other respects he is not liable to account for the income much less to the padakanikas. He is a person with manifold rights and duties. He is the spiritual head; he is the teacher and the guru. He has to carry on the worship of the deity installed in the mutt, maintain the disciples and propagate the views of the religion of the institution. His life is one of discipline and non-attachment to worldly things and he is expected to meditate and study and further the creed of the mutt. Such institutions are autonomous bodies governed and controlled by the directions and orders of the head of the Mutt. He is treated almost as a representative of the Godhead by his disciples and the followers. He is held in high esteem and the disciples consider any extraneous control over the head as lowering the dignity and the prestige he enjoys as such head. These are some of the salient rights and duties of a Mathadhipath. It follows that to some extent he has the beneficial ownership of the properties while in respect of some of the properties he may be a manager. No doubt, the management of the properties may bear a secular aspect but the secular and the religious aspects cannot be dissociated as they are inextricably mixed up when it is once established that the property and the income are at the disposal of the Swami for the sole and exclusive purpose of the spiritual welfare of himself and his disciples and followers.

22. Before dealing with the various grounds on which the legislation is challenged, it may be useful to briefly review the legislation by which the government exercised control over Hindu religious and charitable endowments, and to refer to the relevant provisions of the earlier and the new Acts which have been attacked. In England, from earliest times, the King claimed the prerogative right of exclusive jurisdiction over all charities which was exercised through various channels. It is now being exercised through visitors and by the charity Commissioners under statutory authority. Before Madras Regulation VII of 1817 was enacted, there is evidence that the British Government claimed the power of superintendence and management of the property and affairs of the temples which was exercised through the agency of the Collectors. In 1810 in the Bengal Presidency and in 1817 in the Madras Presidency, the government enacted regulations by which they assumed control of all public endowments, Hindu and Muhammadan, which were placed under the superintendence of the Board of Revenue. Madras Regulation VII of 1817 related to endowments of land and money granted in respect of mosques, hindu temples or colleges or other pious and beneficial purposes. Secular charities and non-religious charities such as choultries and chatrams were also included in it. By Section 2 of that Regulation, the superintendence over the endowments was vested in the Board of Revenue. Mutts were not specifically included in it. The Board of Revenue was authorised to appoint local agents, the collector of the District being ex officio one of such agents. The main object of the Regulation was to see that the income from the endowments was properly applied to the purposes for which they were established. The local agents had to keep watch over the endowments in their charge and to report to the Board. This system of management continued till about 1842 when owing to the agitation set on foot by Christian missionaries that a Christian Government should not administer Hindu and Muhammadan endowments, the supervision and control were given up by the Board of Revenue and the endowments were handed over to the respective trustees. As a result of the relinquishment of control it was experienced by the Government that there was mismanagement of the trusts which resulted in embezzlement and misappropriation of funds belonging to the various institutions. The India Government took up the matter as result of which Act XX of 1863, known as the Religious Endowments Act of 1863, was enacted. It applied to hindu as well as Muhammadan endowments and authorised the constitution of committees in every division or District which has to take the place of the local agents provided under Regulation VII of 1817 and the Committee was authorised to exercise the powers of the Board of Revenue under that regulation. Provision was made to appoint a successor to the office of trustee, manager or superintendent whenever there was a vacancy and also to get a manager appointed by application to the Civil Court in cases where succession to the trusteeship was in dispute until such succession was established in a court of law. Under Section 14 a right of suit was given to persons interested in any mosque, temple or religious establishment to sue the trustee, manager or superintendent for any misfeasance, breach of trust or neglect of duty. Even after a few years after this Act came into force, it was felt in Madras that the control exercised by the Committees was not adequate. In 1877 when the Civil P. C. was enacted in respect of trusts created for public charitable purposes, a right of suit analogous to the right of suit under Section 92 was conferred under Section 539 which was later enlarged to suits in respect of trusts for public charitable and religious purposes by the Code of Civil procedure, 1882. In 1920 the Central Government enacted the Charitable and religious Trusts Act of 1920, Act XIV of 1920, with a view to provide more effectual control over the administration of charitable and religious trusts. The provisions of this Act are undoubtedly wider in scope as under the Act power was conferred in the case of trusts for charitable or religious purposes to apply to the District Court to furnish information and to get the accounts of the trusts audited. The trustee was empowered by Section 7 of the Act to apply for directions to the Court whenever necessary. The Civil Procedure Code of 1908 enacted Section 92 which replaced the earlier section 539. It enlarged the scope of the suit in respect of trusts created for public purposes of a charitable or religious nature. Under this section in case of breach of trust two or more persons having interest in the trust with the previous sanction of the Advocate-General or Collector of the District were empowered to institute a suit in a Court having jurisdiction for removal of a trustee and for appointment of a new trustee and also for directions regarding accounts and enquiries. The Court is also empowered in such a suit to settle a scheme for the administration of the trusts. This section was taken advantage of by many of the worshippers of temples, and representative suits under Order 1, Rule 8, C. P. C, were also instituted. The administration of a large number of temples and the conduct of the trustees was made the subject-matter of judicial enquiry in suits instituted in various Courts.

23. The British Government throughout followed a policy of neutrality in matters of religion ever since the date of the Proclamation of 1858 by Queen victoria. When Diarchy came in, the question of undertaking legislation for the administration of religious endowments received serious attention at the hands of the Madras Government. Earlier no doubt several attempts were made to introduce bills for the better administration of the endowments drafted by very eminent people such as Muthuswami Ayyar, Chenchal Rao, Anandacharlu, and others. In 1925 the Madras Hindu Religious Endowments Act, 1923, (Act I of 1925) was passed by the local Legislature with the object of providing for the better governance and administration of certain religious endowments. The Act divided temples into what are known as Excepted and Non-excepted temples. It defined "mutt" as meaning

"an institution for the promotion of the Hindu religion presided over by a person whose duty is to engage himself in spiritual service or who exercises or claims to exercise spiritual headship over a body of disciples and succession to whose office devolves in accordance with the directions of the founder of the institution or is regulated by usage; and Includes places of religious worship other than a temple or places of religious instruction which are appurtenant to such institution. "

A Board of Commissioners was constituted under the Act vested with powers enumerated therein. Temple Committees for local areas were constituted. Section 34 made it obligatory on the part of every mutt and temple to maintain a register showing particulars regarding the past and present trustees, the usages of the institution, the particulars of the endowments, the scheme of administration and the dittam or scale of expenditure and so on. With regard to non-excepted temples under Chapter V, provision was made for fixing the dittam or the scale of expenditure for the submission of the budget and for settling schemes which could be modified later on sufficient cause shown or even cancelled by the Court on the application of the Board. Mutts and excepted temples, however, received a different treatment. The Act required trustees of mutts and excepted temples to submit a budget and an annual statement of actual receipts and disbursements and there was also a power to settle a scheme for their administration. The only power conferred upon the board in settling scheme under the Act was to associate if necessary, any person or constitute any separate body for participating or assisting in the administration of such endowments along with the trustee or trustees. There were other provisions relating to finance including a power to levy contributions from mutts and temples not exceeding 11/2 per cent of its income as may be determined by the Board. The operation of Sections 92 and 93 and Order I, Rule 8, C. P. C. was excluded" in respect of suits claiming any of the reliefs under section 69 (1) of the Act. e. , for appointing or removing a trustee of a mutt or excepted temple, vesting any property in a trustee and so on. The suit under section 69 could be instituted by the Board or Committee having jurisdiction over the Mutt or temple or any person having interest with the consent of the board. Power was also conferred by Section 74 to get possession of the property of the trust through Court. Immediately after the Act came into force, its validity was challenged in suits instituted for the purpose on the ground that the Act was not validly passed. For this reason, the legislature enacted the Madras Hindu Religious endowments Act, 1926, Act II of 1927. repealing Act I of 1925. Some alterations were also made in the provisions of the Act which was repealed and the same were re-enacted. In the case of Mutts and excepted temples, there was no provision for fixing the dittam and the trustee of a Mutt or excepted temple was required only to submit a budget and also a statement of the actual receipts and disbursements of the previous year. The provisions relating to the framing of a scheme were retained. There was no provision to remove a hereditary trustee of a Math or excepted temple except by a suit under Section 73 of the" Act, The other provisions of the Act were continued though the numbering of the sections was altered. This Act was amended from time to time. It is unnecessary to refer to the changes introduced later. Suffice it to say that the Act was amended by 1946" by as many as ten Acts I of 1928, V of 1929, IV of 1930, XI of 1931. XI of 1934. XII Of 1935, XX of 1938, XXII of 1939, V of 1944 and X of 19

46. A radical change was introduced, however, by Act XII of 1935. The Government was not satisfied with the powers of the Board then existing and they clothed the Board with an important and drastic power by introducing a new Chapter, ch. VI-A. by which jurisdiction was given to the Board to notify a temple for reasons to be given by it. The trustee was to be given an opportunity to show cause against the application of the notification procedure and if the objection was overruled after enquiry, the Board was to issue a notification in the Fort St. George Gazette to the effect that it had decided to apply the provisions of the new Chapter. A novel feature of this chapter is that an appeal against the decision of the Board is provided to the Board itself consisting of the President and all the other Commissioners of the Board sitting together. If no appeal is prefererd or if it was preferred and was dismissed, then the local Government would issue a notification in the Fort St. George Gazette declaring the temple or endowment to be subject to the provisions of this Act whereupon the Board would be authorised to appoint a salaried executive officer professing the Hindu religion to take over the administration of the temple or the endowments. There is no right of suit and the order of the Government is final. This procedure, it must be noticed, did not apply to mutts under Act XII of 1935. Act X of 1946 introduced several changes. This Act abolished the distinction between excepted and non-excepted temples and extended the provisions of the Act to religious endowments in the Presidency Town also. The definition of "religious endowments" has been amplified so as to give power to the Board over the property or endowments of a defunct temple. The powers of the Board have also been enlarged to a large extent. The provisions of Sections 38 and 39 of the Act regarding the preparation of registers of endowments and the annual verification of the register have been made applicable to Mutts also. In settling a scheme for temples under Section 57 of the Act the Board was empowered to remove an existing trustee or trustees whether hereditary or non-hereditary and the notification procedure was made applicable to temples governed by a scheme previously framed by the Board or settled by Court. So far as Mutts are concerned, the power of the Board was. enlarged in various respects, the most important of which is the power to appoint a paid executive officer to take charge of the administration of a Mutt and its endowments. The surplus funds could also be diverted by direction of the Board in the scheme in accordance with the provisions of Section 67. The power of removal of an executive officer appointed under the scheme is vested exclusively in the Board. Under new Section 61 substituted by Act X of 1946, in the case of Mutts it was required that the budget of every mutt should make adequate provision for the dittam or scale of expenditure for the time being in force and the other customary expenses of the mutt and for the due discharge of all liabilities in respect of the debts binding on the math. The budget may also provide for the application of the surplus for such religious or charitable purposes not inconsistent with the objects of the mutt. Under Section 61-A it was open to the Board to require the trustee of a mutt to appoint a competent person as manager for the management of the secular affairs of the math. The contribution payable by a mutt was 3 per cent of the income which was fixed by the earlier Act of 1944. The power to decide the amount of the income was vested solely in the Board. There were also provisions for the audit of accounts and for levying an audit fee. Section 64-A made the provisions of Sections 59 and 60 of the Act applicable also to mutts. Section 59 requires that the trustee should furnish accounts to the Board and section 60 provides for the inspection by the President of the Board or any commissioner or Assistant Commissioner of the movable and immovable properties belonging to the institution and all records, correspondence etc. Section 79a provides that the Board should decide any matters mentioned in section 79 and such power shall be exercised by a Committee of not less than two Commissioners including the President and finality is given to the decision of the Board. The matters referred to in Section 79 relate to the established usage of a mutt or temple or the rights, honours, emoluments and perquisites to which any person may by custom or otherwise be entitled in such mutt or temple. The jurisdiction to decide whether an institution is a mutt or temple and whether the trustee is a hereditary trustee as defined in the Act or not was exclusively vested in the Board and the jurisdiction of the Court to take cognizance of any such dispute in the exercise of its original jurisdiction is taken away. Appeal however is provided against the decision of the Board by way of application to the Court to modify or set aside such decision and the decision of the Court is made appealable.

24. Drastic changes of a fundamental character in the law were introduced by act XIX of 1951 which, as its preamble shows, is intended to amend and consolidate the law relating to the administration and governance of Hindu religious and Charitable Institutions and Endowments in the State of Madras. The ambit and scope of the Act are extended by making it applicable to charitable institutions as well and the endowments attached to them. Power is conferred by Section 2 of the Act to extend the provisions of the Act to religious institutions and endowments of Jains and the Act is to apply to charitable endowments only if a notification extending the provisions is issued by the government. The system of controlling and supervising the endowments through a statutory body hitherto known as the Madras Hindu Religious Endowments Board has been completely abolished and the administration of the religious and charitable institutions and endowments has been vested in a department of the government, the Commissioner being the head thereof. Under him there are deputy Commissioners and Assistant Commissioners and Area Committees. The state is divided into areas, at present three areas, and each area is in charge of a Deputy Commissioner to whom the powers of the Commissioner, which are permissible under the Act, may be delegated. The State is also divided into divisions and each division will be in charge of an Assistant Commissioner. Below the Assistant Commissioners are the Area Committees for all temples situate in an Assistant Commissioners division or a part thereof; but in the case of temples falling within Section 38, the Area Committees have no jurisdiction. e. , religious institutions whose annual income as calculated for the purposes of the levy of contribution under Section 76 is not less than Rs. 20,000. Power is given to the Commissioner under Section 18 to call for and examine the records of Commissioner, Assistant Commissioner, and Area Committee or any trustee not being the trustee of a mutt or of a specific endowment attached to a mutt, in respect of any proceeding under the Act not being a proceeding in respect of which a suit or an appeal to a Court is provided by this Act to satisfy himself as to the regularity, correctness or propriety of any decision or order. Some of the powers of the Com missioner, Deputy Commissioner and Assistant commissioner are enumerated in Chapter XIX. Section 6 contains the definitions and a mutt is defined as a

"hindu religious institution with properties attached thereto and presided over by a person whose duty it is to engage himself in imparting religious instruction or rendering spiritual service to a body of disciples or who exercises or claims ,to exercise spiritual headship over such a body and includes places of religious worship or instruction which are appurtenant to the institution. "

There is an explanation which is not relevant. A religious institution is denned as meaning a mutt, temple or specific endowment and a "religious endowment" means all property belonging to or given or endowed for the support of mutts or temples, or given or endowed for the performance of any charity or service of a public nature connected therewith or of any other religious charity; and includes the institution concerned and also the premises thereof, but does not include gifts of property made as personal gifts to the archaka, service-holder or other employee of a religious institution. A "trustee" is defined as any person or body by whatever designation known in whom or in which the administration of a religious institution is vested, and includes any person or body who or which is liable as if such person or body were a trustee. A perusal of the definition would disclose that the word trustee is used in the Act in a sense totally different from the narrower meaning attached to it in the law of Trusts. It is intended to bring within its purview the dharmakartha or the manager of a temple and even matathipathis in whom the administration of religious institutions is vested. Even if a person is liable to answer in the same manner and to the same extent as if he were a trustee, such a person also would be a trustee within the meaning of the Act. Chapter III contains general provisions applicable to all religious institutions. Section 20 vests the administration of all religious endowments and the general superintendence and control in the Commissioner. The power of superintendence includes within its ambit the power to pass any orders which may be deemed necessary to ensure that such endowments are properly administered and that their income is duly appropriated for the purposes for which they were founded or exist. Section 21 gives the right and authority to a Commissioner, Deputy commissioner and Assistant Commissioner and such other officers as may be authorized by the Commissioner or the Area Committee in that behalf, the power to enter the premises of any religious institution or any place of worship for the purpose of exercising any power conferred or discharging any duty imposed by or under this Act. If resistance to the exercise of such power is offered in discharge of such duty, police help can be obtained by an application to a Magistrate having jurisdiction. The only restriction on this power is a person who is not a Hindu and is not entitled even if he be an officer authorized under the Act, to exercise this power. As would be seen, the power is very wide in its scope and does not take into account the religious sentiments and sanctity attached by a religious denomination to a particular institution and irrespective of the fact whether the person exercising the power, though a Hindu, belongs to the particular sect or caste, he is authorized to enter the institution including the sanctum sanctorum. Section 23 makes it obligatory on the trustee of a religious institution to obey all lawful orders issued under the provisions of this Act by the Govt. , the commr. , the Dy. Commr. , the Area Committee or the Assistant Commissioner. Section 24 lays down the standard of care required by the trustee in exercising his powers. Section 25 deals with the preparation of register for all institutions and the particulars which they should contain. The Commissioner is authorised to direct the trustee to make such alterations and omissions or additions in the register as he may think fit Section 26 deals with the annual verification of the register. Section 27 lays a duty on the trustee to furnish accounts, returns, reports or other information relating to the administration of the institution and its funds etc. Section 28 authorises the Commissioner or any Officer or other person deputed by the Commissioner in this behalf to inspect all movable and immovable property belonging to the institution and all records, correspondence etc. Section 31 deals with the surplus funds and empowers the trustee with the previous sanction in writing of the Deputy Commissioner to appropriate such surplus or any portion thereof for all or any of the purposes specified in S, 59 (1) of the Act. Sections 32 to 51 do not apply to Mutts or specific endowments attached to Mutts. Chapter IV which begins with Section 52 deals with Mutts. Section 52 provides for the removal of a trustee of a Mutt on the grounds specified therein by a suit instituted by the Commissioner or any two or more persons having interest in the Mutt and having obtained in writing the consent of the Commissioner. If succession to the headship is in dispute or when there is a vacancy which cannot be filled up immediately or when the trustee is a minor, the Board has to make interim arrangements for the administration after taking into consideration the claims of the disciples of the Mutt if any. Section 54 relates to dittams. The trustee is required to submit to the Commissioner proposals for fixing the dittam and the amounts to be allotted to the various objects connected with the institution. The proposals have to be published and after receiving suggestions, if any, the proposals will be scrutinised by the commissioner and after necessary enquiry from the trustee, it would be open to the Commissioner if he thinks that a modification is required, to submit the case to the Government who shall pass orders thereon and the orders of the government are final. Section 55 recognises the right of the trustee to spend at his discretion for purposes connected with the Mutt, padakamkas; but he is required to keep regular accounts of all receipts and disbursements regarding such patha-kanikas. Under Section 56 the Commissioner is empowered to call upon the trustee of a mutt to appoint a manager for the administration of its secular affairs and to report the name of the Commissioner. In default of such appointment it is open to the Commissioner to appoint a person himself. The manager so appointed is of course a subordinate to the trustee of the Mutt and shall be responsible along with the trustee for the due submission to the Commissioner of the registers, accounts and budget of the Mutt and also for the performance of the statutory duties imposed upon the trustee by this Act. Chapter V deals with inquiries into various questions connected with the institutions. Section 58 empowers the Deputy Commissioner to frame schemes for temples and Mutts as well. In the case of mutts, Sub-section (3) to S, 58 empowers the Deputy Commissioner, while framing a scheme, to appoint a paid executive officer who shall of course be a person professing the Hindu religion but need hot necessarily belong to the same denomination. He is also authorised to determine what the properties of the religious institution are. The order of the Deputy Commissioner framing a scheme is appealable under section 61 to the Commissioner. The Commissioners order in appeal may be questioned in a suit instituted under Section 62. Section 59 provides for the division of the trust funds or funds of the religious institutions under the cypres doctrine. Section 62 provides for suits enabling a party aggrieved by orders passed by the Commissioner under Section 61 (1) and (2), 57, 58, 60 or under section 57, Section 58 or Section 60 read with Sub-section (1) (a), (2) or (4) (a) of Section 19 or with Sub-section (3) or (4) of Section 80, within 90 days of the receipt of such order. A further appeal lay to the High Court. Chapter VI deals with notified religious institutions and the Act, for the first time, includes within the ambit of that procedure, Mutts also. The power can be exercised notwithstanding the fact that the religious institution is governed by a scheme settled under the Act and the power is exercisable by the commissioner. If the Commissioner decides after hearing objections following the procedure laid down in Section 63 that the institution should be notified, the matter is reported to the Government and it publishes a notification in the Fort st. George Gazette declaring the religious institution to be subject to the provisions of this chapter. Such notification remains in force for a period of five years. The effect of notifying a religious institution is to take over the administration and vest it in an executive officer appointed by the commissioner. The Commissioner is to decide the power and the duties which the executive officer should exercise but subject to the proviso that only such power and duties as appertain to the administration of the endowments of the religious institution shall be assigned to the executive officer. Chapter VII deals with budgets, accounts and audit. Budget is compulsory in the case of religious institutions and the trustee is enjoined to keep regular accounts which should be got audited by an auditor, the details of which need not be referred. Chapter VIII deals with finance. Section 76 vests in the Government the power to levy an annual contribution not exceeding 5 per cent of its income. It is stated that this is levied for services rendered by the Government and their officers to religious institutions and in the case of certain institutions getting a particular income there is also a further charge of 11/2 per cent, for audit the contribution being 5 percent. What was originally 3 per cent, has now been increased to 5 per cent. Chapter IX deals with Tirumalai Tirupathi Devasthanams and Chapter X contains miscellaneous provisions. Section 92 states that nothing contained in this Act shall be deemed to confer any power or impose any duty in contravention of the rights conferred on any religious denomination or any section thereof by els. (a), (b) and (c) of Article 26 of the Constitution and suits are barred except to the extent allowed by the Act intended to question the administration of a religious institution. Section 99 vests revisional jurisdiction in the Government to call for records and examine them to satisfy themselves as to the correctness, legality or propriety of any decision or order passed by any of the authorities. Section 100 contains the rule making power. Chapter XI deals with transitional provisions. Any reference to the Board or its President should be read as referring to the corresponding authority under the Act and the Hindu Religious Endowments Act of 1926 was repealed. Certain rules made under that Act are validated and continued in force. These are, in short, the provisions having particular reference to mutts.

25. It is convenient at this stage to deal with two preliminary questions that have been raised in the arguments. Mr. K. Bhashyam, learned advocate for the petitioner, argued that the mutt in question is not really a public religious institution within the meaning of Section 1 (2) of the Act, and that therefore the act cannot be applied. He emphasized the fact that Shirur mutt exists exclusively for the benefit of Shivalli Brahmins and every member of the public is not entitled as of right to enter into the mutt or to partake either in the religious instruction or in the worship "tried on by the head of the mutt. Even among the members of the Shivalli Brahmin community, it is not all persons that are entitled to be taken into the inner fold of disciples. The choice of a person to be initiated to be made a disciple rests entirely in the discretion of the head, the Swami and no person has a right to insist that he is entitled to get his initiation from the Swam. It is an autonomous body existing for the spiritual benefit of the followers of the mutt. It is therefore claimed that it is solely and exclusively a private institution, something analogous to a college run under private management and therefore cannot be treated as a public religious institution. There is no doubt considerable force in this argument; but we are unable to entertain that objection at this stage as it was not raised before the board and not even in the pleadings in this petition. The question whether an institution is a public institution or a private one has necessarily to be decided on evidence applying the tests recognised and established by decisions to distinguish a public institution from a private one. It is a well-known fact that the extent and nature of the rights and duties and every matter relating to a mutt is dependent exclusively upon established usage. If such usage had been established by evidence that the public or a section thereof have no right to enter into the mutt and to claim its benefits, it would have been a different matter. The objection, therefore, taken only in the course of the arguments cannot now be entertained.

26. Mr. Seshachalapathi, learned counsel for the Endowments Board, raised the preliminary objection that we should not issue a writ of prohibition as the petitioner has his ultimate remedy by way of suit if a scheme were to be framed by the proper authorities under the new Act and that the application is therefore premature. It must be remembered that we are dealing with a writ of prohibition and not certiorar. A writ of prohibition lies to prevent an inferior tribunal from exceeding its jurisdiction or even from assuming a jurisdiction which does not vest in it under law. It also lies if a provision of a statute is contravened by the tribunal or even if any principles of law are contravened. In deciding the question whether a writ of prohibition should issue or not, the existence of an alternative remedy is, in our opinion, an irrelevant consideration when the complaint is that an inferior tribunal is exceeding its jurisdiction or is assuming a jurisdiction not vested in it by law. If the tribunal is permitted to exercise that jurisdiction which is objected to, if it exercises it wrongly, the mischief would be done -before the alternative remedy is availed of. It is unnecessary to insist upon a party complaining that he should first suffer and submit himself to the jurisdiction which is being wrongly exercised or is wrongly exceeded and then take advantage of the alternative remedy. In Halsbury, Vol. IX, page 822 (Hailsham edition), the position is thus stated:

"the Court, in deciding, whether or not to grant a writ of" prohibition, will not be fettered by the fact that an alternative remedy exists to correct the absence or excess of jurisdiction, or an appeal lies against such absence or excess. Similarly the fact that an appeal on the merits of the case has already failed, or that the party applying for prohibition has himself initiated the proceedings in the inferior Court, is not material to the decision of the Court to grant or to refuse the writ. "

Decisions in England, as is evident from this passage, have gone even to the length of helping a person aggrieved notwithstanding the fact that he was the very person who first initiated the proceedings and invoked the jurisdiction of the inferior Court. The objection raised by Mr. Seshachalapathi, in our opinion, has no force_ and must be rejected as it is not supported by any authority. The analogy of the position in the case of a writ of certiorari does not apply here.

27. We may now examine the Articles of the Constitution which have been relied on as having been contravened by the impugned legislation. The power of the legislature of the State of Madras to enact the law now challenged is conferred by the Constitution by Articles 245 and 246 and item 28 of the concurrent list, List III of the seventh schedule. Article 245 is made expressly subject to the provisions of the Constitution and Article 246 (2) enables a State legislature specified in Part A to enact laws with respect to any matters enumerated in List III of the Seventh Schedule. Item 28 of that list is

"charities and charitable institutions, charitable and religious endowments and religious institutions. "

In the Government of India Act, 1935, Item 34 of List II was "charities and charitable institutions, charitable and religious endowments". As religious institutions were not specifically mentioned in that item, a question was raised in manikkasundara BHATTAR v. R. S. NAYUDU, (1946) FCR 67, that the madras Temple Entry (Authorisation and Indemnity) Act XXII (22) of 1939 was ultra vires. The contention, however, was overruled by the Federal Court. In order to obviate such difficulties in future, in the present Constitution, Item 28 expressly includes religious institutions. Power therefore under the present constitution to enact laws with respect to matters enumerated in Item 28 of list III is conferred upon the State legislature but subject however to the provisions of the Constitution. The power of the State Legislature, it cannot be now contended, is part of any prerogative power or inherent right of the State to control and superintend religious institutions. It is an express power conferred by the Constitution upon the State legislature. What the limits to that power are is a matter to be determined by reference to the other Articles of the constitution. We are adverting to this aspect for the reason, that one of the counsel who appeared for the Commissioner, attempted to rest the power also on the prerogative right exercised by the British Government before India became independent and "claimed to have been inherited by the State. e. , the power to legislate for the better administration and superintendence of religious and charitable endowments and institutions. The Constitution proceeds on the assumption that sovereignty vested in the people of India and they, through their accredited representatives in the Constituent Assembly, gave themselves the Constitution. The State legislature, therefore, has no other independent sovereign right to legislate apart from what is contained within the four corners of the Constitution. Therefore, what the British Government did earlier may not be very relevant except to consider the extent to which the temples and mutts allowed themselves to be subjected to extraneous control and supervision when religious liberty was not guaranteed by any written constitution.

28. The power of the State Legislature to enact a law in respect of religious and charitable endowments and institutions being undoubted, it remains to consider whether that power had been exercised within the limits laid down by the constitution, and whether the fundamental rights claimed on behalf of the petitioner have been infringed so as to take away or abridge all or any of them. It is claimed on behalf of the petitioner that the right to equality before the law and the equal protection of laws guaranteed under Article 14 have been denied to him, that there was unreasonable discrimination based solely on religion which offends Article 15, that the right to acquire and hold and dispose of property under Article 19 (1) (f) has been unreasonably restricted and that the right to freedom of religion conferred under Articles 25 and 26 has been unduly restricted and circumscribed practically denying the liberty granted" by the constitution. The levy of contribution under Section 76 of the new Act is, it was contended, in the nature of a "tax" within the meaning of Article 27 which is unconstitutional.

29. The conditions, the violation of which would bring a given legislation within the mischief of Article 14, have now been authoritatively settled by two decisions of the Supreme Court by which we are bound viz. , charanjit LAL v. THE UNION OF INDIA, 1951 SCJ 29 [LQ/SC/1950/51] and THE STATE OF BOMBAY v. BALSARA, 1951 SCJ 478. [LQ/SC/1951/43] In the second of these cases, the principles to be borne in mind when applying Article 14 have been analysed and stated in the form of propositions by Fazl Ali J. at page 491 as follows:

"(1) The presumption is always in favour of the Constitutionality of an enactment, since it must be assumed that the Legislature understands and correctly appreciates the needs of its own people, that its laws are directed to problems made manifest by experience and its discriminations are based on adequate grounds.

(2) The presumption may be rebutted in certain eases by showing that on the face of the statute there is no classification at all and no difference peculiar to any individual or class and not applicable to any other individual or class, and yet the law hits only a particular individual or class.

(3) The principle of equality does not mean that every law must have universal application for all persons who are not by nature, attainment or circumstances in the same position, and the varying needs of different classes of persons often require separate treatment.

(4) The principle does not take away from the State the power of classifying persons for legitimate purposes.

(5) Every classification is in some degree likely to produce some inequality, and mere production of inequality is not enough.

(6) If a law deals equally with members of a well defined class, it is not obnoxious and it is not open to the charge of denial of equal protection on the ground that it has no application to other persons.

(7) While reasonable classification is permissible such classification must be based upon some real and substantial distinction bearing a reasonable and just relation to the object sought to be attained and the classification cannot be made arbitrarily and without any substantial basis."

In view of this clear pronouncement of the highest authority, it is needless to refer to the authorities so copiously cited at the bar to illustrate one or the other of the principles enunciated above. The gravamen of the charge is that while the Christian and Muhammadan religious and charitable institutions and endowments were excluded, Hindu religious and charitable endowments and institutions alone were selected for special treatment and that such a discrimination is unwarranted, unreasonable and unjust. The classification of institutions and endowments based on religion, Hindu, Muhammadan or christian, cannot be said to be either arbitrary or unreasonable having regard to the object sought to be attained viz, the better administration and management of such institutions. It is not a classification or division made for the first time by the State Legislature. The distinction existed for nearly a century. As the incidents and the nature of the institutions and endowments of different religions differ in several respects, it cannot be said that the classification is based solely on religion as the institutions included in the classification are religious as well as secular and having regard to the object in view, the institutions having several common features are rightly classified, under one group. Article 14 does not prevent the legislature from taking up one set of institutions for legislative consideration at one time and enacting laws in respect of them I reserving the other types of institutions for I consideration to a future date. It is impossible to accept the contention that the impugned Act violates either Article 14 or Article 15.

30. The right to acquire, hold and dispose of property is conferred on the citizen by Article 19 (1) (f ). This right, however, as many of the fundamental rights enumerated in the Constitution, can only be exercised subject to reasonable social control in the larger interests of the State and for its welfare. This principle is recognised by Clause (5) of Article 19 which states that the recognition of the right does not prevent the State from making any law imposing reasonable restrictions on the exercise of the right in the interests of the general public or for the protection of the interests of any Scheduled tribe. The Constitution embodies the corporate will of the people and they have expressly elected through their representatives to surrender and forego in the larger interests of the State and for the welfare of the people, part of their rights to the State. The fundamental rights recognised in the Constitution no doubt to some extent constitute limitations on the powers of the Parliament and the State Legislatures to enact laws and these were intended in the interests and for the benefit of the minorities. To what extent the control should be permitted and whether the legislature in enacting a particular law transgressed its limits without any justification and whether such transgression is within reasonable bounds are matters left open for the Courts to decide. Unlike the American constitution where under the power known as "duo process of law" the Courts have exercised and have been exercising a greater degree of freedom in declaring a law unconstitutional on the ground of its unreasonableness for deciding which no particular standard had been laid down by the legislature, under the Indian Constitution, the Courts function is circumscribed and limited to the extent of considering whether the restrictions are reasonable or not.

31. At the outset in considering Article 19 (1) (f ). the Court has to be satisfied that the right claimed by the petitioner is "property" within the meaning of that subclause. Property is nowhere defined in the Constitution. It has now been clear by the decision of the Supreme Court in charanjit LAL CHOWDHURY v. THE union OF INDIA, 1951 SCJ 29 [LQ/SC/1950/51] , that the relief by way of a writ could be granted only in favour of a person whose right has been infringed. A person who is not aggrieved and who is not personally affected cannot set the law in motion. In view of the decision in a. K. GOPALAN v. THE STATE OF MADRAS, 1950 SCR 88 [LQ/SC/1950/19] , and applying the reasoning in that case, if a person is deprived of his rights to property under Article 19 (1) (f), the proper article to be considered is article 31. Article 19 (1) (f) applies only so long as a person is not deprived of his property by a law enacted by a competent legislature. It was contended on behalf of the respondent that trusteeship as understood in the law of trusts is not property contemplated by the Article. Willis in his book on Constitutional law at page 815, in dealing with property that may be taken under the power of eminent domain, says:

"in general it may be said that any and all property may be taken. Land, buildings, water, an easement as distinguished from "general property, a contract, and a franchise may be taken. "

Weaver in his book on Constitutional Law at page 374 says:"property is ownership. It consists of the free enjoyment of ones acquisitions without control or diminution save by the law of the land. It consists not merely of ownership and possession but in the unrestricted right of use and disposal. Anything which destroys any of these elements to that extent destroys the property itself. The right of property is a natural right and neither the Federal Government, nor the State Government can deprive its owner of it or its possession except by the duo process of law. "property includes not only real estate and personal property, but also incorporeal rights such as patents, copyrights, leases, accounts and choses in action, and every other thing of an. exchangeable value which one may have. "

32. It is not disputed on behalf of the respondent that property includes even incorporeal rights. In dwarkadas v. SHOLAPUR S. and W. CO. , LTD. , , the question was considered by Chagla C. J. at page 90, where he expressed the opinion that property used in Articles 19 and 31 need not necessarily be tangible property but may be even intangible property and might include incorporeal rights. The word property occurs in Placitum 31 of the Australian Constitution and Nicholas in his Book on the Australian constitution at page 201 states that:

"the word property in placitum (XXXI) is of the widest connotation: it is nomen generalissimum. It covered the acquisition for an indefinte period of the exclusive right to use certain vacant land on which the claimant had erected a car park station with the permission of the owner; minister OF STATE FOR THE ARMY v. DALZIEL, 68 CLR 261. "

In the case referred to in the above quotation Rich J. stated at. page 285:"the meaning of property in such a connection (. e. Section 51 P. xxxi) must be determined upon general principles of jurisprudence, not by the artificial refinements of any particular legal system or by reference to Sheppards Touchstone. The language used is perfectly general. It says the acquisition of property is not restricted to acquisition by particular methods or of particular types of interests, or to particular types of property. It extends to any acquisition of any interest in any property. "

A trustee in the legal sense is the owner of the property, but has no beneficial interest. The argument is that property is used in Articles 19 (1) (f) and 31 in the sense of property which can be beneficially enjoyed and which can be validly disposed of as in Clause (f) not only the right to acquire, but also to hold and dispose of property is enumerated. As trusteeship even of a hereditary kind could not be alienated under law, it is not property. This was the argument on behalf of the respondent. The manager of a temple who is commonly called dharmakartha or some other equivalent name is not a trustee in the sense in which it is understood in the law of trusts nor is the head of a mutt such a trustee. The decisions in support of this have already been noticed. A dharmakartha very often has no beneficial interest in the property in his possession but his office is hereditary (we are of course not referring here to non-hereditary trustees ). We have considered the decisions in extenso on the jural relationship of the mathadhipathi to the mutt and its properties. He is not a bare trustee, but he occupies a peculiar position and has beneficial ownership to some extent in the property and the income. The mathadhipathi therefore cannot be correctly described as a "trustee" owning no beneficial interest in the property under his management. Even if the argument, therefore, of the respondent were accepted, the mathadhipathi satisfies that test and has beneficial interest in the property. Even in the case of a dharmakartha or the manager of a temple, there may be instances where such a dharmakartha is not merely a manager but also has beneficial interest in the property. In such a case also, the test laid down on behalf of the respondent would be satisfied. If there be however an instance where the dharmakartha has no beneficial interest of any sort but is a mere manager with hereditary rights, there is no reason to exclude such a hereditary right of management even from the scope of property; but however it is not necessary to express a final opinion on this. In the judgment of Mukherjea J. in angur-BALA v. DEBABRATA, 1951 SCJ 394, already referred to, dealing with the word "property" in the Hindu womens Rights to Property Act, reference was made to the decision of varadachariar J. in umayal ACHI v. LAKSHMI ACHI, (1945) 8 FLJ 8, where the learned Judge took the view that a bare trusteeship with no beneficial or personal interest in the trust properties is not property though for certain purposes as conceded even by the learned Judge, trusteeship may be property. Mukherjea J. distinguishes shebaitship from trusteeship as shebaitship always carried with it an element of beneficial or personal interest in the properties in his charge. The learned Judge therefore distinguished the case in UMAYAL ACHI v. LAKSHMI ACHI, (1945) 8 FLJ 8, from the case before him on this ground. The learned Judge also approved of the decision of this Court in suryanarayanacharyulu v. SESHAMMA, ILR (1950) Mad 451, where it was held that the office of archaka which is a hereditary religious office in which the holder for the time being is beneficially interested to enjoy the income of the endowed property is "property" and that therefore the decision of the Federal court was inapplicable. On this reasoning, a Mathadhipathis position cannot be worse than that of either a shebait or an archaka of a temple. The view taken by Mukherjea J. is based upon a Full Bench decision of the calcutta High Court in monohar MUKERJI v. BHUPEN-DRANATH MUKERJI, 60 cal 452 [LQ/CalHC/1932/210] , which was approved by the Judicial Committee in ganesh CHUNDER v. LAL BEHARY DHUR, 71 Mad LJ 740: 63 Ind App 448 and bhabatarini v. ASHALATA, 1943-2 Mad LJ 70: 70 Ind App 57. It may be an anomalous position, but as ob-served by Mukherjea J. it is an anomaly which has been admitted into Hindu Law for a long time from which there is no escape. The addition of the right to dispose of property in Article 19 (1) (f) along with the right to acquire and hold is not intended to give a definition of property so as to limit it to disposable property. Property may be inalienable but yet a person may be entitled to hold it as in the case of inalienable service mams. The person holding such an inam is entitled to enjoy its income so long as he holds it, though he will not be entitled to dispose it of either by will or by gift inter vivos; but must allow the property to pass on to the next office holder according to the law of succession governing such property. The argument that if the headship of a mutt is considered to be property, in no case can the mathadhipathi be removed even if it is established that he is disqualified from holding the position or proved that he is unworthy to hold it, overlooks the fact that in such an event, Article 31 (1) clothes the legislature with power to enact a law depriving a person of the property. Of course such a legislation should_ not contravene or infringe any of the other liberties or fundamental rights recognised by the Constitution. The distinction between Articles 19 (1) (f) and 31 (1) is the difference between plucking the feathers of a bird one by one and killing it. In such a case Article 31 (2) does not come into play as it would not be "acquisition" meaning transfer of property from the owner to the State but deprivation of property within the meaning of Article 31 (1 ). For a further discussion of the meaning of the word acquire reference may be made to the decision of the learned Chief Justice and Venkatarama Iyer J. in the judgment relating to Rent Reduction Act in ramakrishna RANGA RAO V. STATE OF madras, C. M. P. Nos. 894 and 895 of 1951.

33. If Article 19 (1) (f) applies, as we hold it does, the next question for consideration is whether the restrictions on the rights to property imposed by the impugned legislation are reasonable, and the interests of the general public demand them, there being no question of the protection of any Scheduled tribes here. The effect of the legislation is practically to reduce the Mathadhipathi to the position of a servant, subordinate to the Government even in respect of rights relating to property. The executive administration replaces the statutory control by the Board. The Mathadhipathi is bound to obey all lawful orders emanating from the Government down to the Asst. Commissioner. The premises of the mutt and the places of worship and meditation are not immune from interference by the Government. All officers of Government have a right to enter any part of the religious institution and place of worship in the discharge of their duties and for the purposes of the Act and any resistance in the exercise on such power entails penal consequences. The only safeguard is the person so entering must be a Hindu but it is very often ineffective and useless. It is a well known fact that there are mutts belonging to different sects and creeds, the adwaita mutts, the Visishtadwaita, dwaita and saiva mutts and smarthamutts and Zangam or Veerasaiva mutts. A Vaishnavite will not be permitted to enter the premises or at any rate to enter the place of worship, in a Veerasaiva mutt. There are differences even among Vaishnava sects between vadagalais and Thengalais, and the customs and usages in the mutts vary. The place where the deity is installed is not allowed to be entered even by the ordinary worshippers- The officer even if he is a Hindu, may not be. a believer in the faith of that particular Mutt and may have no respect for it and may even enter the premises in the western style with his shoes on. All these are matters of detail which can be better imagined than described. In the utilisation of the surplus funds, the discretion of the head or the mathadhipathi is seriously interfered with by the provisions of |the Act. In incurring expenditure under Section 30 of the new Act for the health, safety or convenience of the disciples, pilgrims or worshippers the voice of the mathadhipathi is not final. Surplus funds may be diverted for other purposes alien to the objects of the institution. While under law lie is entitled to use it at his discretion for any purposes which cannot be described. as wicked or immoral, his discretion is now taken away. In the application of the funds for the daily expenditure, he has to conform to the dittam and the opinion of the commissioner regarding the fixation of the scales of expenditure which has to be submitted to Government who has to pass orders, is final. The routine expenditure in the institution consists usually in the feeding of the disciples and the head, the cost of carrying on of the worship of the deity and the feeding of the visitors and others according to the usage of the Mutt. There may be periodical special services or worship and the scale at which the amount has to be spent is usually at the discretion of the head of the Mutt. In this institution it has been the usage to perform the paryayam for example on a large scale as the feeding of the Brahmins on that occasion cannot be avoided and the Judicial Committee in the case of this very Mutt in vibhudapriya v. LAKSHMINDRA, 50 Mad 497, decided that the mathadhipathi was justified in incurring debts for the performance of the paryayam. In this view they differed from the narrow view taken by this Court based on economy and upheld the binding nature of the debt. It was observed by two learned Judges of this Court that the expenditure on such a large scale was not justified and one of the learned Judge stated that

"it is idle to pretend that the feeding could have gone on anything like thjs scale in all the six centuries during which these maths existed or even in the earlier years of the last century,"

and in Support of that view a passage in palaniappa CHETTY, K. P. L. S. v. SREEMATH DEVASIKAMONY PANDARA SANNADHI, 40 Mad 709, was relied on. In considering these observations, Mr. Ameer Ali observed at page 506:"the learned Judge seems to have misapprehended the effect of their lordships judgment in Palaniappa Chettys case. "

It was further observed that the High Court overlooked the observations of the privy Council in vidya VARUTHI v. BALUSWAMI IYER, 44 Mad 831 PC, to the effect that the superiors"have ample discretion in the application of the funds of the maths but always subject to certain obligations and duties equally governed by custom or usage. "

The learned Judge proceeds to observe in the same page:"these Mathadhipathis have a difficult task to perform; unaided by any established rule they are expected to exercise control over the numbers of pilgrims, who come to the temple in order to participate in the festivals and share in the food offerings. Even if it were permissible for the superior to exclude a certain number from being fed, their Lordships doubt whether popular sentiment would sanction his so doing. The obligations under which they labour are regulated by custom, which are of longstanding and have been observed for centuries. "

"what their Lordships have to see in this case, is, firstly, whether the debts were contracted by the deceased Swami for his own purposes or for the purposes of the temple and in discharge of the duties under which he lay in the performance of the worship and the feeding of pilgrims; and secondly, whether the moneys so borrowed were legitimately applied for those purposes. "

It follows therefore that if there is a customary obligation like the feeding of the brahmins who visit the mutt at the time of the paryayam, that obligation cannot be got rid of by the Mathadhipathi and even if he incurs debts for discharging such an obligation, the debts will bind the math and so long as those moneys are not applied for the personal use of the Swami nobody can question the extent or the necessity for the large scale of expenditure incurred by the Mathadhipath. Customs and usages vary from mutt to mutt and an attempt to apply the axe and cut down the expenditure purely from a secular angle of vision is not to view the matter in the proper perspective. It is this vision, as pointed by the Judicial Committee in the above case, that this Court did not have and the necessity for setting matters right arose before the judicial Committee. The same mistake and the same error might be repeated by the Government and the Commissioner under the Act as the decision of the govt. in settling the dittam is stated to be final. The power to hold property carries with it the power to enjoy and utilise the income in a manner in which the person holding the property is entitled to spend it under law. This power is unduly and unreasonably restricted by Section 54 of the new Act.

34. Again, take the pathakanikas under Section 55. It is common knowledge that they are the property of the Matathipath. While the Act recognises the matathipathis right and discretion to spend it for purposes connected with the mutt, he is kept under an obligation to keep regular accounts of the receipts and disbursements, Regarding the management of the properties, it is open under the Act to the Commissioner to require and insist that the Swamiji should appoint a manager and in default, power is given to the Commissioner himself to appoint one. A person is entitled to manage his own property as its incident. There are two other modes by which this right of the matathipathi to manage his properties can be taken away under the Act. One is by an attempt to frame a scheme as in the present case which enables the Commissioner to appoint a paid executive officer to take over the management and there is the second and more dangerous weapon, viz. , the power of notification by which without any remedy by way of judicial review, the executive is empowered to take the drastic step of depriving a Matathipathi of his right to manage his own affairs. The decision of the Government is final and the notification continues in force for a period of five years. These modes practically leave nothing in the matathipathi except a vestige of a right to call himself a Matathipathi with no power to manage the property, to deal with its income, to apply its surplus for the objects of the institution at his discretion and choice which is a right recognised and established by the decisions of the highest tribunal which we have already adverted to. It cannot be seriously contended and indeed, no decision in support of such a serious invasion has been placed before us. It may be suggested that the appointment of the manager or the executive officer paid or otherwise, and the notification procedure relate only to secular affairs of the mutt and do not trench upon the religious affairs. This argument has been repeatedly urged before us in justification of the drastic provisions of the Act. In our opinion, a separation of religious affairs from secular affairs of a Mutt in such watertight compartments is not possible. The property of the mutt and its income exist for one purpose and only one purpose and that is the religious purpose. It has to be applied and utilised for the maintenance of the mutt, for carrying on the worship and for the propagation of the religion. It is not merely a question of leasing the lands and realising and paying the income into the hands of the head, but extends to the receipt of the income and the disbursements thereof over which practically the Matathipathi has no control. He has no deciding voice in the matter of the selection of the various items of expenditure for the purposes of the mutt and cannot give priority to one over the other. His hands with reference to the property, are tied completely. It does not stop at merely requiring him to prepare the budget and submit it and the accounts; but goes further and takes over the management itself into the hands of the Government through their appointed agents. It cannot therefore be seriously contended that the restrictions so imposed are reasonable and that they are required in the interests of the general public.

35. In construing the expression reasonable restriction it has been pointed out by the Supreme Court in dr. N. B. KHARE v. STATE OF DELHI, 1950 SCJ 328, that the word reasonable in clause (5) of Article 19 goes with restrictions and not with law and that in deciding the reasonableness or otherwise of the restrictions, the Court need not be confined to an examination of the restrictions in the abstract with reference merely to their duration or territorial extent, but it is open to look into the circumstances under which or the manner in which the restrictions have been imposed. Reasonable restrictions on the exercise of the right conferred by Article 19 may contain substantive as well as procedural provisions. The possibility of the favour being abused in the hands of the executive may not be altogether irrelevant. In chintaman RAO v. STATE of MADHYA PRADESH, 1950 SCJ 571 [LQ/SC/1950/36] , it was observed at p. 573:

"the phrase reasonable restriction connotes that the limitation imposed on a person in enjoyment of the right should not be arbitrary or of an excessive nature, beyond what is required in the interests of the public. The word reasonable implies intelligent care and deliberation, that is the choice of a course which reason dictates. Legislation which arbitrarily or excessively invades the right cannot be said to contain the quality of reasonableness and unless it strikes a proper balance between the freedom guaranteed in Article 19 (1) (g) and the social control permitted by clause (6) of Article 19. it must be held to be wanting in that quality."

The same reasoning would apply equally to Article 19 (1) (f) and 19 (v ). The restrictions imposed are so drastic in scope that they go beyond the object sought to be achieved.

36. Now we come to religious freedom. It is often said that the conception underlying our Constitution is a secular State and that the goal is a welfare state. But it is argued further, as it is a secular State, it should not possess legislative power to control and supervise religious institutions and religious freedom. This argument proceeds on a misconception. America, Australia and the Irish Free State are all secular States and they all guarantee religious freedom subject to limitations and subject to the power, to control, such liberty for the welfare of the State. Secular State implies that the bond of union is not based on religion but on citizenship as distinguished from a theocratic State. In england there is an established Church and the King is considered as the supreme head on Earth. He is the Head of the Church of England and also the patron of all Archbishops and Bishops within the United Kingdom. The Crown, therefore, enjoys the right of patronage in respect of several churches in the kingdom. In America and other countries such as Australia and the Irish Free state, the position is different. Under the American Constitution, "a wall of separation between the Church and the State" is recognised and this was due to the fact that the American people, before the framing of the Constitution, suffered centuries of religious oppression and persecution and as the bitterness of that sufferings was still fresh in their memory, the wall of separation was erected. The First Amendment enacted:

"the Congress shall make no law respecting the establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof. "

Unlike Articles 25 and 26 of the Indian Constitution, this Amendment is framed more as a restriction on the legislative power of the Congress rather than from the point of view of the individual. Under the Constitution of the Irish Free state, Article 8 on which Article 26 of our Constitution was modelled; is:"freedom of conscience and the free profession and practice of religion are subject to public order and morality guaranteed to every citizen. " (the rest of the article is omitted ). Article 116 of the Australian Constitution is: "the Commonwealth shall not make any laws for establishing any religion, or for imposing any religious observance, or for prohibiting the free exercise of any religion, and no religious test shall be required as a qualification for any office or public trust under the commonwealth. "

The right to freedom of religion under Article 25 of the Indian Constitution is conferred upon all persons and is not confined to citizens. Article 26 relates to the freedom of a religious denomination to manage its own religious affairs. Under Article 25 the guarantee is freedom of conscience and the right freely to profess, practice and propagate religion. It is subject to public order and morality and health and Article 26 also is subject to a similar limitation. In article 25 power is conferred on the State to make any law (a) regulating or restricting any economic, financial, political or other secular activity which may be associated with religious practice and Sub-Clause (2) (b) providing for social welfare and reform or the throwing open of Hindu religious institutions of a public character to all classes and sections of Hindus. Freedom of conscience is the minimum of reli gious liberty. It is intangible as it is subjective and is not capable of legal protection except that a person may not be compelled by law to abandon his belief, creed or opinion. A man may not only hold his religious opinions but may put them to practice and translate them into articulate force by profession, practice and propagation. Unless these are also protected there is no meaning in protecting freedom of conscience. Religion has been defined by Field J. in davis v. Beason, (1890) 133 US 333: (33 Law Ed 637), as meaning a mans"views of his relations to his Creator, and to the obligations they impose of reverence for his being and character, and of obedience to his will. It is often confounded with the cultus or form of worship of a particular sect, but is distinguishable from the latter. "

Profession of religion implies, in our opinion, the right of the person who believes in a religion to state his creed and also to propagate it either by speech or by writing or by any other visible means. The practice of religion is the practical expression of his belief in the particular "form of private or public worship. He may himself carry on worship or partake in a worship carried on by others. The exercise of these rights, however, is not altogether free from restrictions. It cannot be doubted that in the public interests and in the interests of and for the welfare of the State, the expression of ones religion should not be allowed to degrade into licentiousness or to perpetrate a crime or endanger public order, morality or health. In other words, to use an expression familiar to American law, it is subject to the police power of the State. Clauses (a) and (b) of Sub-clause (2) of Article 25 reserve also a power to reguiate or restrict any economic, financial, political or other secular activity associated with religious practice and also in the interests of social welfare and reform and for throwing open religious institutions to the Harijans. That these restrictions are imperative and are justified is established by a number of decisions of american Courts which illustrate the manner in which and the extent to which social control has been exercised in America, restricting the religious liberty of the citizen. In reynolds v. United States. (1879) 98 US 145: (25 Law Ed 244), polygamy though justified by the tenets of a religious sect, was allowed to be restricted by legislation in the interests of society. Polygamy was considered meritorious by the Mormon religion. davis v. Beason, (1890) 133 US 333: (33 Law Ed 637), is another instance where a similar law was upheld. In cantwell v. State of connecticut, (1940) 310 US 296: (84 Law Ed 1213), the question was whether a statute prohibiting solicitation of contributions to any philanthropic, religious or charitable cause without the approval of the Secretary of the Public Welfare council offended against religious liberty. This is one of the cases relating to the jachovas witnesses. At page 1218 it is stated:"the Constitutional inhibition of legislation on the subject of religion has a double aspect. On the one hand, it forstalls compulsion by law of the acceptance of any creed or the practice of any form of worship. Freedom of conscience and freedom to adhere to such religious organization or form of worship as the individual may choose cannot be restricted by law. On the other hand, it safeguards the free exercise of the chosen form of religion. Thus the Amendment embraces two concepts. Freedom to believe and freedom to act. The first is absolute but, in the nature of things, the second cannot be. Conduct remains subject to regulation for the protection of society. The freedom to act must have appropriate definition to preserve the enforcement of ihat protection. In every case the power to regulate must be so exercised as not, in attaining a permissible end unduly to infringe the protected freedom. No one would contest the proposition that a state may not. by statute, wholly deny the right to preach or to disseminate religious views. Plainly such previous and absolute restraint would violate the terms of the guaranty. It is equally clear that a statute may by general and non-discriminatory legislation regulate the times, the places, and the manner of soliciting upon its streets, and of holding meetings thereon; and may in other respects safeguard the peace, good order and comfort of the community, without unconstitutionally invading the liberties protected by the fourteenth Amendment. "

The statute was held unconstitutional. It may be mentioned that so far as the states are concerned, though there is no express provision as the First amendment is applicable only to Congress it has been field that the same liberty is attracted by Amendment 14 of the Constitution which applies to states. This was decided in everson v. Board of Education, (1947) 330 U S 1: 91 Low Ed 711 and illinois v. Board of Education, (1948) 333 US 203: 92 Law ed 649. The wall of separation between Church and State is attributed to jefferson as is stated in everson v. Board of Education Euring, (1947) 330 US 1: 91 Law Ed 711. In murdock v. Pennsylvania, (1943) 319 U S 105: 87 Law ed 1292, it was stated that the power to tax the exercise of a privilege is the power to control or suppress its enjoyment. A fee imposed for the privilege of canvassing or soliciting within a municipality was held to be an unconstitutional invasion of the right of freedom of religion. These are merely illustrations of the kind of control that is permissible.

37. In the Australian Constitution it has been held that notwithstanding the absolute nature of the prohibition in Section 116 preventing the Commonwealth from making any law for establishing any religion etc. , it is open to the Court to consider and determine whether the freedom of religion has been unduly infringed by a particular legislative provision. In justification of this view, the decisions of the American Courts already referred to were relied on. Without such restrictions it might lead to anarchy and make it difficult, if not impossible, to maintain the rule of law. On this principle it was held that the provisions of the National Security (Subversive Associations) Regulations were not invalid notwithstanding that such regulations prohibited the advocacy of doctrines or principles in pursuance of religious convictions which are however prejudicial to the prosecution of the war in which the Commonwealth was engaged. The judgment of Latham C. J. in adelaide Company of Jehovahs Witnesses v. The commonwealth, 67 CLR 116, contains a useful and illuminating discussion of the ambit of religious liberty. At page 123 speaking about religion he says:

"it would be difficult, if not impossible, to devise a definition of religion which would satisfy the adherents of all the many and various religions which exist, or have existed in the world. There are those who regard religion as consisting principally jn a system of beliefs or statement of doctrine. So viewed religion may be either true or false. Others are more inclined to regard religion as prescribing a code of conduct. So viewed a religion may be good or bad. There are others who pay greater attention to religion as involving some prescribed form of ritual or religious obervance. Many religious conflicts have been concerned with matters of ritual and observance. Section 116 must be regarded as operating jn relation to all these aspects of religion, irrespective of varying opinions in the community as to the truth of particular religious doctrines, as to the goodness of conduct prescribed by a particular religion, or as to the propriety of any particular religious observance. What is religion to one is superstition to another. Some religions are regarded "as morally evil by adherents of other creeds. At all times there are many who agree with the reflective comment of the Roman Poet -- "tantum religio potuit suadere malerum". . . . .

"almost any matter may become an element in religious belief or religious conduct. The wearing of particular clothes, the eating or the non-eating of meat or other foods, the observance of ceremonies, not only in religious worship, but in the every day life of the individual -- all these may become part of religion. Once upon a time all the operations of agriculture were controlled by religious precepts. Indeed, it is not an exaggeration to say that each person chooses the content of his own religion. It is not for a Court, upon some a priori basis, to disqualify certain beliefs as incapable of being religious in character. "

The picture of religion so aptly drawn applies to the religious beliefs in this country as well. Later on at page 125 the learned Judge catalogues instances of religious practices which are considered by a majority of people as wicked. He says:"at all periods of human history there have been religions which have involved practices which have been regarded by large number of people as essentially evil and wicked. Many religions involve the idea of sacrifice and the practice of sacrifice has assumed the form of human sacrifice or animal sacrifice as appears in the Old Testament, and in many other sacred writings and traditions. So also religions have differed in their treatment of polygamy. Polygamy was not reproved in the Old Testament; it has been part of the Mormon religion; it is still an element in the religion of millions of mohammedans, Hindus, and other races in Asia. The criminal religions in India are well-known. The thugs of India regarded it as a religious duty to rob and kill. The practice of Suttee, involving the immolation of the widow upon the funeral pyre of her husband, was for centuries a part of the Hindu religion. "

38. These illustrations show that it is very difficult to separate religious belief and practice from politics or ethics. But in the interests of the State it cannot be contended, at any rate at the present day that such practices cannot legitimately be prohibited by legislation though such legislation might infringe religious liberty. Article 25 uses the word "freely" while Article 116 of the australian Constitution used the word "free". The Illustrations given by Latham c. J. at page 127, establish that the meaning of the word which is vague and indeterminate takes its colour from the context. To quote his words:

"compare for instance, its use in free speech, free love, free dinner and free trade. Free speech does not mean free speech; it means speech hedged in by all the laws against defamation, blasphemy, sedition and so forth; it means freedom governed by law, as was pointed in mc. ARTHURs CASE, (1920) 28 CLR 530. Free love on the contrary means licence or libertinage, though, even so, there are limitations based on public decency and so forth. Free dinner generally means free of expense, and sometimes a meal open to any one who comes, subject, however to his condition or behaviour not being objectionable. Free trade means, in ordinary parlance, freedom from tariffs. Thus there is no dictionary meaning of the word free which can be applied in all cases. "

It must always be treated as subject to the law for there could be no freedom except freedom in accordance with law as otherwise, there will be no ordered society and it would be impossible for society to function. It was pointed out by john Stuart Mill in his Essay on Liberty which is quoted at page 131 of the same report:"the sole end of which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number is self-protection. It may be going too far to say that selfprotection is "the sole end" which justifies any governmental action. But I think it must be conceded that the protection of any form of liberty as a social right within a society necessarily involves the continued existence of that society as a society. Otherwise the protection of liberty would be meaningless and ineffective. It is consistent with the maintenance of religious liberty for the State to restrain actions and courses of conduct which are inconsistent with the maintenance of civil Government or prejudicial to the continued existence of the community. The constitution protects religion within a community organized under a Constitution, so that the continuance of such protection necessarily assumes the continuance of the community so organized. This view makes it possible to reconcile religious freedom with ordered Government. "

The ultimate decision whether a given law infringes religious freedom or not must rest with the Court.

39. The Mathadhipathis right freely to practise and propagate religion, it is contended, has been interfered with by some of the provisions of the new Act. The power to enter the reli-: gious institutions under Section 21 and the very wide power conferred under Sections 23 and 24 of the Act to issue lawful directions to be obeyed, the right to interfere with the dittam or scale of expenditure under Section 54 are stated as instances of such infringement. These provisions undoubtedly vest very large powers in the Commissioner and are certainly calculated to interfere with the practice of religion. e. the carrying on of the worship and the propagation of religion by instructing the disciples and initiating them into the fold of religion. The Swamijis tranquillity and peace of mind which are so essential for deep contemplation may also be disturbed. The holiness and the sanctity of the institutions are destroyed. That the provisions may be abused is not based, merely on speculation and imagination but on facts is made clear by the instructions issued by the Board under the earlier Act. In memorandum dated the 1st October, 1945, the Mathadhipathi of Kaniyoor mutt was asked to state whether the Boards sanction was obtained to present a japamala to a devotee and a silver kalasa to a Swamiar. It turned out ultimately that the Japamala was actually given to a doctor for having treated the Swamiji for asthma during the course of a whole year without fees and the silver kalasa was actually purchased by the Mutt and not presented to anybody. The Swamiji, it will be seen, is not only accountable and answerable to the properties and the income of the mutt under the provisions of the earlier Act and the new Act but he is also answerable to things he wears on his body such as Japamala. Another instance is by an order of 17th October, 1949 the mathadhipathis were prevented from presenting clothes and paying bonus to temple servants from out of the funds of the religious institutions for deepaval. In another order of 7th May, 1947 the Board directed that as the wages of labour have increased instead of using human agency for carrying the deity in procession, the authorities of religious institutions should construct sagadams and use them by engaging a very few persons or a pair of bulls to drag them. On 13-3-1946 instructions were given that in view of the acute food situation expenditure on food grains should be cut down and the rituals and festivals should be reduced to their barest minimum. On 22-9-1950 the Board requested executive authorities in charge of Hindu religious institutions to use all available tanks for pisciculture unless there is a usage or custom in any particular locality against the utilisation of the tanks for such purpose. Then the order was later on modified by restricting it only to tanks which have hitherto been ordinarily used or leased out for fishing. This modification was on 3rd July 1951. Regarding the application of the surplus funds, the Board gave directions or issued orders to utilise them for various purposes wholly foreign to the objects for which the religious institutions were established e. g. for the Balamandir. On 28th October, 1950 an order was issued that surplus funds within the meaning of Section 67 of the earlier Act may be contributed to the support of the balamandir and if there is no provision in the budget application may be made to the Board and they were directed to send the contributions to the Hony. Secretary. Rupees 10/- was directed to be sent to Sarada Vidyalaya, T. Nagar and also for the Provincial Welfare fund for Guild of Service and so on. These are instances of the possible "lawful" orders that may be issued by the commissioner and which the trustees in whatever form the orders may be clothed are bound to treat as obligatory in order to avoid the displeasure of the commissioner. The contention that the sections of the Act above referred to constitute an infringement of the right under Article 25 seems to be wellfounded.

40. Article 26 which relates to religious denominations is also relied on. It runs as follows:

"subject to public order, morality and health, every religious denomination or any section thereof shall have the right-- (a) to establish and maintain institutions for religious and charitable purposes; (b) to manage its own affairs in matters of religion; (c) to own and acquire movable and immovable property; and (d) to administer such property in accordance with law. "

The dictionary meaning of the word deno-mination as given by Webster is"of action of naming from or after something; giving a name to, calling by a name; a characteristic or qualifying name given to a thing or class of things; that which anything is called; an appellation, designation or title; a collection of individuals classed together under the same name; now almost always specially a religious sect or body having a common faith and organization and designated by a distinctive name. "

There being several religions in India such as Islam, Christianity, zoroastrianism and Hinduism, it may not be wrong to take Hinduism and the members of that religion as constituting a religious denomination in a larger sense or if it should be taken in a limited sense Advaita, Dwaita; Visishtadwaita, saivitea may be another classification and the members of each faith may be treated as members of one denomination. In an Irish case mac Laughlin v. Campbell, (1906) 1 Ir R 588, the meaning of "denomination" was given by Fitz gibbon L. J. as only a sect Writ Large. Even taking it in that sense, the division of the members of the Hindu religion based upon a system of philosophy which is adopted by a group of members may be treated as a denomination or sect and any section of that denomination, and a division made either on territorial or sectional basis, may be treated as a section thereof. Every religious sect therefore under the Article has the right to establish and to maintain institutions for religious and charitable purposes and to manage its affairs in the matter of religion. It is also permissible for such a sect to own and acquire movable and immovable property and to administer such property in accordance with law. The right to maintain implies the right to continue the institution according to the established usage, to carry on the worship and to make jt function in the manner in which it has been functioning according to long established usage. Except on the ground of public order and morality and health, this right cannot be in any manner affected by legislation. The religious sect or denomination considered as an autonomous body has got an unquestioned right to manage its own affairs in matters of religion. Whether an uncertain and fluctuating body could own and acquire property or not, a religious denomination being a definite body is permitted by the Constitution to own and acquire movable and immovable property also and to administer such property but in accordance with law.

41. It is contended that the denomination contemplated is not identical with a religious-sect or members of a religious persuasion but it must be a closed body like a Corporation. This argument however was not supported by any authority, and in view of the clear language of the Article, it is difficult to accept it. It is rather difficult to dissociate the religious affairs of an institution from the property or its secular affairs. The secular affairs are only directed for the purpose of better management of the religious affairs for which alone the institution exists. They are inextricably mixed up. It was however argued that under Clause (d) of the Article the legislature has undoubted power to enact a law regulating the administration of the property. The expression in accordance with law must now be understood in the light of the decision in a. K. Gopalan v. The State of Madras, (1950) SCR 88 [LQ/SC/1950/19] , as meaning statute law or law enacted by a competent legislature. The argument, however, did not go to the Jength of maintaining that this clause would enable a legislature not only to regulate the administration of the property but even to deprive or to destroy the right. It may well be conceded that the law need not necessarily be the established law such as the law relating to trusts or property as was contended on behalf of the petitioner but may even extend to any statute law that may be enacted by a competent legislature providing for the regulation or the administration of the properties. But regulation does not mean destruction or annihilation of the right. It is a question of degree whether in a given case the enacted law merely regulates or substantially takes away the right leaving to the denomination a mere vestige of the right. It need not be a total deprivation of the right. It would be enough if there was a substantial deprivation of the right to administer the property. In such a case the law, it must be admitted, cannot be upheld.

42. The difficulty however is whether the mutt in question can be held to be a mutt belonging to a religious denomination. The petitioner contends that the mutt belongs to Shivalli Brahmins as it is for their benefit and for their spiritual enlightenment that the institution exists and that it should be treated as a religious institution established and maintained for the religious benefit of this community. The community has the right to the continued existence of the mutt for serving the spiritual needs of its members and the head of the mutt is the person in whom the power to administer the religious affairs and the administration of the property are vested. The superior is also a member of the community. The Article is concerned with religious institutions and the consideration of the question whether there is any beneficial ownership in the pro-perties of the institution by the members of the denomination is irrelevant as it is solely concerned with the institution which exists for spiritual and not for material benefit. There is no difficulty therefore in treating the Shivalli Brahmin community as a denomination entitled to protection of the right guaranteed under the Article. The right to administer religious and secular affairs has been unduly interfered with as. the head may not have even an effective voice in the appointment of persons to carry on the administration under him. The appointment of an agent or manager requires the approval of the Commissioner and if it was decided to frame a scheme or notify a temple, the Commissioner or the Government as the case may be, has the sole and exclusive right to appoint a paid executive officer. It is a substantial deprivation of the right to administer the property in accordance with law and the impugned Act in so far as it takes away the rights to administer the religious and secular affairs of the mutt must be held to be invalid as infringing Article 26, Sections 18 (2) and (3), 25 (4), 28, 29, 58 (4), 59 and 76. The Sections of the impugned new Act which are ultra vires will be specified at the end of the judgment.

43. It is also urged on behalf of the respondent that all the four clauses must be satisfied by a religious denomination which claims a right under Article 26 and as the fluctuating body like the religious denomination cannot hold property under law, it must be inferred that religious denomination means only a closed body like a Corporation. In the first place the rights of a religious denomination are not like fishery rights. A claim based on lost grant in favour of a fluctuating body was not upheld as in the case of braja Sundar Deb v. Moni Behara, (1951) SCJ 363. [LQ/SC/1951/23] In simmonds v. Elliott (1917) 2 K B 894, it was assumed that the church of England was a religious denomination. The very article of the constitution empowers the denomination to own and acquire property. The objection, therefore, has no basis in view of the clear language of the Article. It is unnecessary, in, our opinion, that in order to claim the benefit of Article 26 a religious denomination should be capable of holding all the four rights in the four sub-clauses of that Article. Each clause recognises a distinct and separate right. The denomination may exercise all or any of those rights and it is unnecessary that it should own all the rights before it can claim recognition a_s a religious denomination.

44. The next point for consideration is, whether Section 76 of the new Act (Act xix of 1951) is intra vires the State legislature or whether it offends Article 27 of the Constitution, and is therefore, unconstitutional. Section 76 runs thus:

"1. In respect of services rendered by the Government and their officers, every religious institution shall from the income derived by it pay to the Government annually such contribution not exceeding five per centum of its income as may be prescribed.

2. Every religious institution the annual income of which in the fasli year immediately preceding as calculated for the purposes of levy of contribution under Subsection (1) is not less than Rs. 1000/-shall pay to the Government annually for meeting the costs of auditing its accounts such further sum not exceeding 1 1/2 per centum of its income as the Commissioner may determine."

Sub-clauses 3 and 4 of Section 76 need not be referred to for the present.



45. Article 27 of the Constitution of India runs :

"no person shall be compelled to pay any taxes the proceeds of which are specifically appropriated in payment of expenses for the promotion or maintenance of any particular religion or religious denomination. "



46. The first question is, whether the levy of five per centum of the income of a religious institution provided for in Section 76 (1) of the new Act is a "tax" within the meaning of Article 27.



47. After analysing the concept of a tax in Chapter VI Vol. III of his Principles of political Economy, Professor Nicholson said at p. 26. 4:

"professor Bastables definition of taxation sums up in a convenient form the principal results of the foregoing analysis. a tax is a compulsory contribution of the wealth of a person or body of persons for the services of the public powers. "



48. It was the same idea cast in different words that found favour with Cooley in his book on Constitutional Limitations. In a foot note at page 986, the learned author observed: "a tax is a contribution imposed by the Government on individuals for the services of the State. It is distinct from a subsidy certain and orderly which is shown in its derivation from Greek, order or arrangement. Jacob, Law Dictionary; Bouvier, Law Dictionary. "the revenues of a State are a portion that each subject gives of his property in order to secure, or to have, the agreeable enjoyment of the remainder. " Montesquieu, Spirit of the Laws b. 12, c-30. In its most enlarged sense the word taxes embraces all the regular impositions made by Government upon the person, property, privileges, occupations and enjoyments of the people for the purpose of raising public revenue. " willoughby on the Constitution of the United States, Vol. II at p. 666 adopts cooleys definition when he says:

"taxes have been defined by an eminent authority to be burdens or charges imposed by the legislative power upon persons or property to raise money for public purposes. The same author in another work observes that they differ from forced contributions, loans and benevolences of arbitrary and tyrannical periods in that they are levied by authority of law, and by some rule of proportion which is intended to insure uniformity of contribution and a just apportionment of the burdens of Government. "

49. No doubt, what Section 76 (1) authorised was a levy of contribution, the maximum of which was prescribed at 5 per centum of the income of a religious institution. The section itself left it to the Government to prescribe rules for the levy of this contribution from time to time within the permissible maximum of five per centum. It is also true that the section itself specifically stated that this levy was in respect of the services rendered by the Government and its officers.

50. If this levy is tested by the definition given by Professor Bastable, it would appear to satisfy all the known tests of a tax. It is a compulsory contribution. It is a uniform contribution. Section 76 (1) itself directs that every religious institution shall pay the contribution. If any doubt could arise as to the uniformity of the levy, to which every religious institution was made subject by section 76 (1), Sub-clause 3 of Section 76 should remove it. It says:

"the annual payments referred to in Sub-sections (1) and (2) shall be made notwithstanding anything to the contrary contained in any scheme settled or deemed to be settled under this Act for the religious institution concerned. "

That this levy of contribution, as it is called by Section 76 (1), is "for the services of the public powers" should also be clear. No doubt every religious institution is entitled to the services of the Government and their officers in accordance with the several sections of the new Act. But the liability of any given religious institution to pay the contribution authorised by Section 76 (1) is not fixed with specific reference to the services enjoyed by that institution. As we have pointed out, it is a uniform levy that is contemplated and authorised, a liability imposed alike on every religious institution subject to the provisions of the new Act. Therefore, the expression "in respect of the services rendered by the Government and their officers" as used in Section 76 (1) of the Act would really be the same as a "compulsory contribution for the services of the public powers" within the scope of Professor Bastables definition of tax.